gambler

SR-71 Blackbird

2007-08-10T05:09:00.000-07:00

Type
Strategic Reconnaissance
Manufacturer
Lockheed Skunk Works
Designed by
"Kelly" Johnson
Maiden flight
22 December 1964
Introduced
1966
Retired
1998
Primary users
United States Air ForceNASA, CIA
Number built
32
Developed from
Lockheed A-12
“SR-71” redirects here. For other uses, see SR-71 (disambiguation).
SR-71 "Blackbird"

Type
Strategic Reconnaissance
Manufacturer
Lockheed Skunk Works
Designed by
"Kelly" Johnson
Maiden flight
22 December 1964
Introduced
1966
Retired
1998
Primary users
United States Air ForceNASA, CIA
Number built
32
Developed from
Lockheed A-12
The Lockheed SR-71 was an advanced, long-range, Mach 3 strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed from the Lockheed YF-12A and A-12 aircraft by the Lockheed Skunk Works. The SR-71 was unofficially named the Blackbird; its crews often called it the Sled, or the Habu ("snake"). The SR-71 line was in service from 1964 to 1998. Clarence "Kelly" Johnson was the man behind many of the design's advanced concepts. The SR-71 was one of the first aircraft to be shaped to reduce radar cross section. However, the aircraft was not stealthy and still had a large enough radar signature to be tracked by contemporary systems. The aircraft's defense was its high speed and operating altitude; if a surface-to-air missile launch was detected, the standard evasive action was to simply accelerate. No aircraft have been downed in action, but thirteen aircraft are known to have been rendered unusable for non-combat related reasons either due to crash or damag
[edit] History
[edit] Predecessor models
The A-12 OXCART, designed for the CIA by Kelly Johnson at the Lockheed Skunk Works, was the precursor of the SR-71. Lockheed used the name "Archangel" for this design, but many documents use Johnson's preferred name for the plane, "the Article". As the design evolved, the internal Lockheed designation went from A-1 to A-12 as configuration changes occurred, such as substantial design changes to reduce the radar cross-section. The first flight took place at Groom Lake, Nevada, on April 25, 1962. It was "Article 121", an A-12, but it was equipped with less powerful Pratt & Whitney J75s due to protracted development of the intended Pratt & Whitney J58. The J58s were retrofitted as they became available. The J58s became the standard power plant for all subsequent aircraft in the series (A-12, YF-12, M-21) as well as the follow-on SR-71 aircraft. Eighteen A-12 aircraft were built in four variations, of which three were YF-12As, prototypes of the planned F-12B interceptor version, and two were the M-21 variant (see below).
The Air Force reconnaissance version was originally called the R-12 (see the opening fly page in Paul Crickmore's book SR-71, Secret Missions Exposed, which contains a copy of the original R-12 labeled plan view drawing of the vehicle). However, during the 1964 presidential campaign, Senator Barry Goldwater continually criticized President Lyndon B. Johnson and his administration for falling behind the Soviet Union in the research and development of new weapon systems. Johnson decided to counter this criticism with the public release of the highly classified A-12 program and later the existence of the reconnaissance version.

[edit] Name and designation
The USAF had planned to redesignate the A-12 aircraft as the B-71 as the successor to the B-70 Valkyrie. The B-71 would have a nuclear capability of 3 first-generation SRAM's (Short-Range Attack Missiles). The next designation was RS-71 (Reconnaissance-Strike) when the strike capability became an option. However, then USAF Chief of Staff Curtis LeMay preferred the SR (Strategic Reconnaisance) designation and wanted the RS-71 to be named SR-71. Before the Blackbird was to be announced by President Johnson on 29 February 1964, LeMay lobbied to modify Johnson's speech to read SR-71 instead of RS-71. The media transcript given to the press at the time still had the earlier RS-71 designation in places, creating the myth that the president had misread the plane's designation.[1][2]
This public disclosure of the program and its designation came as a shock to everyone at Skunk Works and Air Force personnel involved in the program; at this time all of the printed Maintenance Manuals, Flight Crew Handbooks (the source of Paul Crickmoore's page), training slides and materials were still labeled "R-12" (the 18 June 1965 Certificate of Completion issued by the Skunkworks to the first Air Force Flight Crews and their Wing Commander are labeled: "R-12 Flight Crew Systems Indoctrination, Course VIII" and signed by Jim Kaiser, Training Supervisor and Clinton P. Street, Manager, Flight Crew Training Department). Following Johnson's speech, the designation change was taken as an order from the Commander-in-Chief, and immediate republishing began of new materials retitled "SR-71" with 29,000 blueprints altered.

[edit] First flight and usage
Although the predecessor A-12 first flew in 1962, the first flight of an SR-71 took place on 22 December 1964, at Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California. The first SR-71 to enter service was delivered to the 4200th (later, 9th) Strategic Reconnaissance Wing at Beale Air Force Base, California, in January 1966. The United States Air Force Strategic Air Command had SR-71 Blackbirds in service from 1966 through 1991.
SR-71s first arrived at the 9th SRW's Operating Location (OL-8) at Kadena Airbase, Okinawa on 8 March, 1968. These deployments were code named "Glowing Heat," while the program as a whole was code named "Senior Crown". Reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam were code named "Giant Scale".
On 21 March, 1968, Major (later General) Jerome F. O'Malley and Major Edward D. Payne flew the first operational SR-71 sortie in SR-71 serial number 61-7976 from Kadena AB, Okinawa. During its career, this aircraft (976) accumulated 2,981 flying hours and flew 942 total sorties (more than any other SR-71), including 257 operational missions, from Beale AFB; Palmdale, California; Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, Japan; and RAF Mildenhall, England. The aircraft was flown to the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio in March 1990.
From the beginning of the Blackbird's reconnaissance missions over enemy (North Vietnam, Laos, etc.) territory in 1968, the SR-71s averaged approximately one sortie a week for nearly two years. By 1970, the SR-71s were averaging two sorties per week. By 1972, the Blackbird was flying nearly one sortie every day.
While deployed in Okinawa, the SR-71s and their aircrew members gained the nickname Habu (as did the A-12s preceding them) after a southeast Asian pit viper which the Okinawans thought the plane resembled.
In a 17-year period of its operational history (from 21 July 1972 to 21 April 1989) the SR-71 flew without a loss of any type. Other operational highlights include:
3,551 Mission Sorties Flown
17,300 Total Sorties Flown
11,008 Mission Flight Hours
53,490 Total Flight Hours
2,752 hours Mach 3 Time (Missions)
11,675 hours Mach 3 Time (Total)
A total of 32 SR-71 aircraft were built, 29 as SR-71As for operational missions and two as SR-71B trainers. The 32nd airframe was fabricated in 1969 as a hybrid trainer designated the SR-71C by mating the back half of an YF-12 wrecked in a 1966 landing accident with a fully functional SR-71 forward section of a static test specimen. Of all SR-71s, 12 (including one trainer) were lost in accidents. Only one crew member, Jim Zwayer, a Lockheed flight-test reconnaissance and navigation systems specialist, was killed from a flight accident. The rest of the crew members ejected safely or evacuated their aircraft on the ground.
The highly specialized and advanced tooling used in manufacturing the SR-71 was ordered to be destroyed by then-Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara allegedly because of USAF's and Congress' preference for an F-12B interceptor version over his preferred option of using F-111s as interceptors. Destroying the tooling killed any chance of there being an F-12B but also limited the SR-71 force to the 32 completed, the final SR-71 order having to be canceled when the tooling was destroyed.

[edit] First retirement
In the 1970s the SR-71 was placed under closer congressional scrutiny and with budget concerns the program was soon under attack. Both Congress and the USAF sought to focus on newer projects like the B-1 Lancer and upgrades to the B-52 Stratofortress (whose replacement was being developed). While the development and construction of reconnaissance satellites was costly their upkeep was less than that of the nine SR-71s then in service. The SR-71 had never gathered significant supporters within the Air Force making it an easy target for cost conscious politicians. Also, parts were no longer being manufactured for the aircraft, so other airframes had to be cannibalized in order to keep the fleet airworthy. The Air Force saw the SR-71 as a bargaining chip which could be sacrificed to ensure the survival of other priorities. A general misunderstanding of the nature of aerial reconnaissance and a lack of knowledge about the SR-71 in particular (due to its early secretive development and usage) was used by its detractors to discredit the aircraft. In 1988 Congress was convinced to allocate $160,000 to keep six SR-71s (along with a trainer model) in flyable storage that would allow the fleet to become airborne within 60 days. The USAF refused to spend the money. The decision to release the SR-71 from active duty came in 1989. Funds were redirected to the financially troubled B-1 Lancer and B-2 Spirit programs. Four months after the plane's retirement, General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was told that reconnaissance which the SR-71 could have provided was unavailable during Operation Desert Storm.[3] However, it was noted by SR-71 supporters that the SR-71B trainer was just coming out off overhaul and that one SR-71 could have been made available in a few weeks and a second one within two months. Since the plane was recently retired, all the support infrastructure was still in place and qualified crews were available. The decision was made by Washington not to bring the aircraft back.

[edit] Reactivation
Due to increasing unease about political conditions in the Middle East and North Korea, the U.S. Congress reexamined the SR-71 beginning in 1993.[3] At a hearing of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, Senator J. James Exon (noting Senator John Glenn's disapproval of reactivating the SR-71) asked Admiral Richard C. Macke
"If we have the satellite intelligence that you collectively would like us to have, would that type of system eliminate the need for an SR-71… Or even if we had this blanket up there that you would like in satellites, do we still need an SR-71?” Macke replied “From the operator's perspective, what I need is something that will not give me just a spot in time but will give me a track of what is happening. When we are trying to find out if the Serbs are taking arms, moving tanks or artillery into Bosnia, we can get a picture of them stacked up on the Serbian side of the bridge. We do not know whether they then went on to move across that bridge. We need the [data] that a tactical, an SR-71, a U-2, or an unmanned vehicle of some sort, will give us, in addition to, not in replacement of the ability of the satellites to go around and check not only that spot but a lot of other spots around the world for us. It is the integration of strategic and tactical."[4]
Rear Admiral Thomas F. Hall addressed the question of why the SR-71 was retired, saying it was under "the belief that, given the time delay associated with mounting a mission, conducting a reconnaissance, retrieving the data, processing it, and getting it out to a field commander, that you had a problem in timeliness that was not going to meet the tactical requirements on the modern battlefield. And the determination was that if one could take advantage of technology and develop a system that could get that data back real time… that would be able to meet the unique requirements of the tactical commander." Hall stated that "the Advanced Airborne Reconnaissance System, which was going to be an unmanned UAV” would meet the requirements but was not affordable at the time. He said that they were “looking at alternative means of doing [the job of the SR-71]."[4]
Macke told the committee that they were “flying U-2s, RC-135s, [and] other strategic and tactical assets” to collect information in some areas.[4]
Senator Robert Byrd and other Senators complained that the “better than” successor to the SR-71 had yet to be developed at the cost of the "good enough" serviceable airplane. They maintained that in a time of constrained military budgets designing, building, and testing an aircraft with the same capabilities as the SR-71 would be impossible.[5]
Congress' disappointment with the lack of a suitable replacement for the Blackbird was cited concerning whether to continue funding imaging sensors on the U-2. Congressional conferees stated the "experience with the SR-71 serves as a reminder of the pitfalls of failing to keep existing systems up-to-date and capable in the hope of acquiring other capabilities."[5]
It was agreed to add $100 million to the budget to return three SR-71s to service, but it was emphasized that this "would not prejudice support for long-endurance UAV's [such as the Global Hawk]." The funding was later cut to $72.5 million.[5] The Skunk Works was able to return the aircraft to service under budget, coming in at $72 million.[6]
Col. Jay Murphy (Ret) was made the Program Manager for Lockheed’s reactivation plans. Retired Colonels Don Emmons and Barry MacKean were put under government contract to remake the plane’s logistic and support structure. Still active Air Force pilots and Reconnaissance Systems Officers (RSOs) who had worked with the aircraft were asked to volunteer to fly the reactivated planes. The aircraft was under the command and control of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing at Beale Air Force Base and flew out of a renovated hanger at Edwards Air Force Base. Modifications were made to provide a data-link with "near real-time" transmission of the Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar's imagery to sites on the ground.[5]

[edit] Second retirement
The reactivation met much resistance, the Air Force had not budgeted for the aircraft, and UAV developers remained paranoid that their programs would suffer if money was shifted to support the SR-71s. Also, with the allocation requiring yearly reaffirmation by Congress, long-term planning for the SR-71 was difficult.[5] In 1996 the Air Force claimed that specific funding had not been authorized and moved to ground the program. Congress re-authorized the funds, but in October 1997 President Bill Clinton used the line-item veto to cancel the $39 million set for the SR-71. In June 1998 the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the line-item veto was unconstitutional. All this left the SR-71's status uncertain until September 1998 when the Air Force called for the funds to be redistributed. The plane was permanently retired in 1998. The Air Force quickly disposed of the remaining SR-71 assets, leaving NASA with the two last flyable Blackbirds. All other Blackbirds have been moved to museums except for the two SR-71s and a few D-21 drones retained by NASA.[6]

[edit] SR-71 Timeline
Important dates pulled from many sources.[7]
24 December 1957: First J-58 engine run.
1 May 1960: Francis Gary Powers is shot down in a U-2 over the Soviet Union.
13 June 1962: SR-71 mock-up reviewed by Air Force.
30 July 1962: J-58 completes pre-flight testing.
28 December 1962: Lockheed signs contract to build six SR-71 aircraft.
25 July 1964: President Johnson makes public announcement of SR-71.
29 October 1964: SR-71 prototype (#61-7950) delivered to Palmdale.
7 December 1964: Beale AFB, CA announced as base for SR-71.
22 December 1964: First flight of the SR-71 with Lockheed test pilot Bob Gilliland at AF Plant #42.
21 July 1967: Jim Watkins and Dave Dempster fly first international sortie in SR-71A #61-7972 when the Astro-Inertial Navigation System ( ANS ) fails on a training mission and they accidentally fly into Mexican airspace.
3 November 1967: A-12 and SR-71 conduct a reconnaissance fly-off. Results were questionable.
5 February 1968: Lockheed ordered to destroy A-12, YF-12, and SR-71 tooling.
8 March 1968: First SR-71A (#61-7978) arrives at Kadena AB (OL 8) to replace A-12s.
21 March 1968: First SR-71 (#61-7976) operational mission flown from Kadena AB over Vietnam.
29 May 1968: CMSGT Bill Gormick begins the tie-cutting tradition of Habu crews neck-ties.
3 December 1975: First flight of SR-71A #61-7959 in "Big Tail" configuration.
20 April 1976: TDY operations started at RAF Mildenhall in SR-71A #17972.
27 July 1976 - July 28, 1976: SR-71A sets speed and altitude records (Altitude in Horizontal Flight: 85,068.997 ft. and Speed Over a Straight Course: 2,193.167 mph).
August 1980: Honeywell starts conversion of AFICS to DAFICS.
15 January 1982: SR-71B #61-7956 flies its 1,000th sortie.
22 November 1989: Air Force SR-71 program officially terminated.
21 January 1990: Last SR-71 (#61-7962) left Kadena AB.
26 January 1990: SR-71 is decommissioned at Beale AFB, CA.
6 March 1990: Last SR-71 flight under SENIOR CROWN program, setting four world records.
25 July 1991: SR-71B #61-7956/NASA #831 officially delivered to NASA Dryden.
October 1991: Marta Bohn-Mayer becomes first female SR-71 crew-member.
28 September 1994: Congress votes to allocate $100 million for reactivation of three SR-71s.
26 April 1995: First reactivated SR-71A (#61-7971) makes its first flight after restoration by Lockheed.
28 June 1995: First reactivated SR-71 returns to Air Force as Detachment 2.
28 August 1995: Second reactivated SR-71A (#61-7967) makes first flight after restoration.
19 October 1997: The last flight of SR-71B #61-7956 at Edwards AFB Open House.
9 October 1999: The last flight of the SR-71 (#61-7980/NASA 844).
September 2002: Final resting places of #956, #971, and #980 are made known.
15 December 2003: SR-71 #972 goes on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.

[edit] Variants
Main article: Lockheed D-21/M-21

D-21B Drone mounted on M/D-21 Blackbird.
One notable variant of the basic A-12 design was the M-21. The M-21 was used to carry and launch the D-21 drone, an unmanned, faster and higher flying reconnaissance device. This variant was known as the M/D-21 when mated to the drone for operations.
Another is the SR-71C, the only "C" model Blackbird ever built. It was nicknamed "The Bastard" since it was a hybrid comprised of the rear fuselage of the first YF-12A (S/N 60-6934) and a functional engineering mockup of an SR-71A forward fuselage built for static testing.

[edit] Records
The SR-71 remained the world's fastest and highest-flying operational manned aircraft throughout its career. From an altitude of 80,000 ft (24 km) it could survey 100,000 square miles per hour (72 square kilometers per second) of the Earth's surface. On 28 July 1976, an SR-71 broke the world record for its class: an absolute speed record of 2,193.1669 mph (3,529.56 km/h), and a US "absolute altitude record" of 85,068.997 feet (25,929 m). Several planes exceeded this altitude in zoom climbs but not in sustained flight. When the SR-71 was retired in 1990, one was flown from its birthplace at United States Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California to go on exhibit at what is now the Smithsonian Institution's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center (an annex of the National Air & Space Museum) in Chantilly, Virginia. The Blackbird, piloted by Colonel Ed Yielding and Lt. Col. J.T. Vida, set a coast-to-coast speed record at an average 2,124 mph (3,418 km/h). The entire trip was reported as 68 minutes and 17 seconds. Three additional records were set within segments of the flight, including a new absolute top speed of 2,242 mph measured between the radar gates set up in St. Louis and Cincinnati. These were accepted by the National Aeronautic Association (NAA), the recognized body for aviation records in the United States. [8],[9] An enthusiast site devoted to the Blackbird lists a record time of 64 minutes. [10] The SR-71 also holds the record for flying from New York to London: 1 hour 54 minutes and 56.4 seconds, set on 1 September 1974. This is only Mach 2.68, well below the declassified figure of 3.0+. (For comparison, commercial Concorde flights took around 3 hours 20 minutes, and the Boeing 747 averages 6 hours.)
Any discussion of the SR-71's records and performance is limited to declassified information. Actual performance figures will remain the subject of speculation until additional information is released.

[edit] Design and operational details

The flight instrumentation of SR-71 Blackbird
The airframe was made of titanium obtained from the USSR during the height of the Cold War. Lockheed used all possible guises to prevent the Soviet government from knowing what the titanium was to be used for. In order to keep the costs under control, they used a more easily worked alloy of titanium which softened at a lower temperature. Finished aircraft were painted a dark blue (almost black) to increase the emission of internal heat (since fuel was used as a heat sink for avionics cooling) and to act as camouflage against the sky.
The aircraft was designed to minimize the radar cross-section and as such, the SR-71 was an early attempt at stealth design. However, the radar signature aspects of the SR-71 design did not take into account the extremely hot engine exhaust and the particles in the hot exhaust reflect radar extremely well. Ironically, the SR-71 was one of the largest targets on the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) long range radars, which were able to track the plane at several hundred miles.
The red stripes found on some SR-71s are there to prevent maintenance workers from damaging the skin of the aircraft. The curved skin near the center of the fuselage is thin and delicate. There is no support underneath with exception of the structural ribs, which are spaced several feet apart.

[edit] Air inlets

Operation of the air inlets and air flow patterns through the J58.
The air inlets were a critical design feature to allow cruising speeds of over Mach 3.0, yet provide subsonic Mach 0.5, air flow into the turbojet engines. At the front of each inlet was a sharp, pointed moveable cone called a "spike" that was locked in the full forward position on the ground or when in subsonic flight. During acceleration to high speed cruise, the spike would unlock at Mach 1.6 and then begin a mechanical (internal jackscrew powered) travel to the rear.[11] It moved up to a maximum of 26 inches (66 cm).
The original air inlet computer was an analog design which, based on pitot-static, pitch, roll, yaw, and angle-of-attack inputs, would determine how much movement was required. By moving, the spike tip would withdraw the shock wave riding on it closer to the inlet cowling until it just touched slightly inside the cowling lip. In this position, shock wave spillage causing turbulence over the outer nacelle and wing was minimized while the spike shock wave then repeatedly reflected between the spike centerbody and the inlet inner cowl sides. In doing so, shock pressures were maintained while slowing the air until a Mach 1 shock wave formed in front of the engine compressor.[12]
The backside of this "normal" shock wave was subsonic air for ingestion into the engine compressor. This capture of the Mach 1 shock wave within the inlet was called "Starting the Inlet." Tremendous pressures would be built up inside the inlet and in front of the compressor face. Bleed tubes and bypass doors were designed into the inlet and engine nacelles to handle some of this pressure and to position the final shock to allow the inlet to remain "started." So significant was this inlet pressure build-up (pushing against the inlet structure) that at Mach 3.2 cruise, it was estimated that 58% of the available thrust was being provided by the inlet, 17% by the compressor and the remaining 25% by the afterburner.
Ben Rich, the Lockheed Skunkworks designer of the inlets, often referred to the engine compressors as "pumps to keep the inlets alive" and sized the inlets for Mach 3.2 cruise (where the aircraft was at its most efficient design point).[13] The additional "thrust" refers to the reduction of engine energy required to compress the airflow. One unique characteristic of the SR-71 is that the faster it went, the more fuel-efficient it was in terms of pounds burned per nautical mile traveled.
One incident related by Brian Shul, author of Sled Driver: Flying the World's Fastest Jet, was that on one reconnaissance run he was fired upon several times. In accordance with procedure they accelerated and maintained the higher than normal velocity for some time, only to discover later that they were well ahead of their fuel curve.[14]
In the early years of the Blackbird programs, the analog air inlet computers would not always keep up with rapidly changing flight environmental inputs. If internal pressures became too great (and the spike incorrectly positioned), the shock wave would suddenly blow out the front of the inlet, called an "Inlet Unstart." Immediately, the airflow through the engine compressor would cease, thrust dropped and exhaust gas temperatures would begin to rise. Due to the tremendous thrust of the remaining engine pushing the aircraft asymmetrically along with the sudden deceleration caused by losing 50% of available power, an unstart would cause the aircraft to yaw violently to one side. SAS, autopilot, and manual control inputs would fight the yawing, but often the extreme off angle would reduce airflow in the opposite engine and cause it to begin "sympathetic stalls." The result would be rapid counter yawing, often loud "banging" noises and a rough ride. Pilots and RSOs occasionally experienced their pressure suit helmets banging on their cockpit canopies until the initial unstart motions subsided.
One of the standard counters to an inlet unstart was for the pilot to reach out and unstart both inlets; this drove both spikes out, stopped the yawing conditions and allowed the pilot to restart each inlet. Once restarted, with normal engine combustion, the crew would return to acceleration and climb to the planned cruise altitude.
Eventually, a digital air inlet computer replaced the original analog one. Lockheed engineers developed control software for the engine inlets that would recapture the lost shock wave and re-light the engine before the pilot was even aware an unstart had occurred. The SR-71 machinists were responsible for the hundreds of precision adjustments of the forward air by-pass doors within the inlets. This helped control the shock wave, prevent unstarts, and increase performance.

[edit] Fuselage
Due to the great temperature changes in flight, the fuselage panels did not fit perfectly on the ground and were essentially loose. Proper alignment was only achieved when the airframe warmed up due to the air resistance at high speeds, causing the airframe to expand several inches. Because of this, and the lack of a fuel sealing system that could handle the extreme temperatures, the aircraft would leak its JP-7 jet fuel onto the runway before it took off. The aircraft would quickly make a short sprint, meant to warm up the airframe, and was then air-to-air refueled before departing on its mission. Cooling was carried out by cycling fuel behind the titanium surfaces at the front of the wings (chines). Nonetheless, once the plane landed no one could approach it for some time as its canopy was still hotter than 300 °C. Non-fibrous asbestos was also used, as in non-ceramic automotive brakes, due to its high heat tolerance.[13]

[edit] Stealth
There were a number of features in the SR-71 that were designed to reduce its radar signature. The first studies in radar stealth technology seemed to indicate that a shape with flattened, tapering sides would reflect most radar away from the place where the radar beams originated. To this end the radar engineers suggested adding chines (see below) to the design and canting the vertical control surfaces inward. The plane also used special radar-absorbing materials which were incorporated into sawtooth shaped sections of the skin of the aircraft, as well as cesium-based fuel additives to reduce the exhaust plumes' visibility on radar.
The overall effectiveness of these designs is still debated; Ben Rich's team could show that the radar return was, in fact, reduced, but Kelly Johnson later conceded that Russian radar technology was advancing faster than the "anti-radar" technology Lockheed was using to counter it.[15] The SR-71 made its debut years before Pyotr Ya. Ufimtsev's ground-breaking research made possible today's stealth technologies, and, despite Lockheed's best efforts, it was still easy to track by radar (and had a huge infrared signature when cruising at Mach 3+). It was visible on air traffic control radar for hundreds of miles, even when not using its transponder.[16] This fact is further corroborated by the fact that missiles were fired at them quite often after they were detected on radar.
Stealth features were useful mainly for intelligence purposes (hiding the fact that the aircraft was in use). The flight characteristics of the SR-71 made it virtually invulnerable to attempts to shoot it down during its service life, and in fact no SR-71 was ever shot down, despite over 4,000 attempts to do so.[17]

[edit] Chines

Head-on view of an A-12 (precursor to the SR-71) on the deck of the Intrepid Sea-Air-
Space Museum, illustrating the chines.
The chines themselves (sharp edges leading back to the left and right of the nose and along the sides of the fuselage) were an interesting and unique feature.
The Blackbird was originally not going to have chines. At its "A-11" design stage, it looked similar to an enlarged F-104. Lockheed's aerodynamicists were concerned that these large surfaces would hurt the aircraft's aerodynamic performance. But the government agencies paying for the project wanted drastically reduced radar cross-section, and pushed Lockheed's aerodynamicists to try chines on a few wind-tunnel models near the end of the configuration design process.[18]
The aerodynamicists discovered that the chines generated powerful vortices around themselves, generating much additional lift near the front of the aircraft, leading to surprising improvements in aerodynamic performance[19]: The angle of incidence of the delta wings could then be reduced, allowing for greater stability and less high-speed drag, and more weight (fuel) could be carried, allowing for greater range. Landing speeds were also reduced, since the chines' vortices created turbulent flow over the wings at high angles of attack, making it harder for the wings to stall. (The Blackbird can, consequently, make high-alpha high-g turns to the point where the Blackbird's unique engine air inlets stop ingesting enough air, which can cause the engines to flame out[20]. Blackbird pilots were thus warned not to pull more than 3Gs, so that angles of attack stay low enough for the engines to get enough air). The chines act like the leading edge extensions that increase the agility of modern fighters such as the F-5, F-16, F/A-18, MiG-29 and Su-27. The addition of chines also allowed designers to drop the planned canard foreplanes. (Many early design models of what became the Blackbird featured canards[21][22][23]).
When the Blackbird was being designed, no other airplane had featured chines, so Lockheed's engineers had to solve problems related to the differences in stability and balance caused by these then-unusual surfaces. Their solutions have since been extensively used. Chines are still an important part of the design of many of the newest stealth UAVs, such as the Dark Star, Bird of Prey, X-45 and X-47, since they allow for tail-less stability as well as for stealth.

[edit] Fuel

An air-to-air overhead front view of an SR-71A strategic reconnaissance aircraft. Note the water vapor, condensed by the low-pressure vortices generated by the chines outboard of each engine inlet.
SR-71 development began using a coal slurry powerplant, but Johnson determined that the coal particles damaged engine components. He then began researching a liquid hydrogen powerplant, but the tanks required to store cryogenic hydrogen did not suit the Blackbird's form factor.[13]
The focus then became somewhat more conventional, though still specialized in many ways. Originally developed for the A-12 plane in the late 1950s, the JP-7 jet fuel had a relatively high flash point (60 °C) to cope with the heat. In fact, the fuel was used as a coolant and hydraulic fluid in the aircraft before being burned. The fuel also contained fluorocarbons to increase its lubricity, an oxidizing agent to enable it to burn in the engines, and even a cesium compound, A-50, which disguised the exhaust's radar signature.
JP-7 is very slippery and extremely difficult to light in any conventional way. The slipperiness was a disadvantage on the ground, since the aircraft leaked fuel when not flying, but at least JP-7 was not a fire hazard. When the engines of the aircraft were started, puffs of triethylborane (TEB), which ignites on contact with air, were injected into the engines to produce temperatures high enough to initially ignite the JP-7. The TEB produced a characteristic puff of greenish flame that could often be seen as the engines were ignited.[14] TEB was also used to ignite the afterburners. The aircraft had only 600 cubic centimeters of TEB on board for each engine, enough for at least 16 injections (a counter advised the pilot of the number of TEB injections remaining), but this was more than enough for the requirements of any missions it was likely to carry out.

[edit] Life support
Crews flying the SR-71 at 80,000 feet faced three main survival problems: 1) With a standard pressure demand oxygen mask, human lungs can not absorb enough of 100% oxygen above 43,000 feet to sustain consciousness and life, and 2) the instant heat rise pulse on the body when exposed to a Mach 3 air flow during ejection would be about 450 degrees F. To solve these problems, the David Clark Company was hired to produce protective full pressure suits for all of the crew members of the A-12, YF-12, MD-21 and SR-71 aircraft. These suits were later adopted for use on the Space Shuttle during ascent.
In addition, at Mach 3+ cruise the external heat rise due to the compression of air on the vehicle would even heat up the inside of the windshield to 250 degrees F and cooling of the crew members was vital. This was achieved by cooling the air with an air conditioner. The air conditioner dumped the heat from the cockpit into the fuel prior to combustion via a heat exchanger.
After a high altitude bailout, an oxygen supply would keep the suit pressurized. The crew member would then free fall to 15,000 feet before the main parachute was opened allowing the high heat rise to bleed off as the crew member slowed down and descended. To demonstrate this full pressure suit capability, crew members would wear one of these suits and undergo an altitude chamber explosive decompression to 78,000 feet or higher while chamber heaters would rapidly turn on to 450 degrees (F) and then be turned down at the rate experienced during a real life free fall.
Since the cabin altitude of the SR-71 stayed at 27,000-29,000 feet during flight, crews flying a low-subsonic flight (such as a ferry mission) would wear either their full pressure suit or standard USAF hard hat helmets, pressure demand oxygen masks and nomex flying suits.

[edit] Titanium structures and skin
Before the Blackbird, titanium could only be found in aircraft in high-temperature exhaust fairings and other small parts directly related to supporting, cooling, or shaping high-temperature areas. The decision to build the Blackbird's structure using 85% titanium and 15% composite materials was a first in the airplane industry. The advances made by Lockheed in learning to deal with this material have been used in subsequent high-speed aircraft such as most modern fighters.
Titanium was difficult to work with, expensive, and scarce. In fact, much of the titanium bought by Lockheed to make Blackbirds had to be imported from Russia. Initially, 80% of the titanium delivered to Lockheed had to be rejected due to metallurgical contamination.
One example of the difficulties of working with titanium is the fact that welds made at certain times of the year seemed to be more durable than welds made at other times. It was eventually found that the water supplied to the manufacturing plant came from one reservoir in the summer and another reservoir in the winter: The slight differences in the impurities in the water from these different reservoirs led to differences in the durability of the welds, since water was used to cool the titanium welds.
Studies of the aircraft's titanium skin revealed the metal was actually growing stronger over time due to the intense heating caused by aerodynamic friction, a process similar to annealing.
Major portions of the upper and lower inboard wing skin of the SR-71 were actually corrugated, not smooth. The thermal expansion stresses of a smooth skin would have resulted in the aircraft skin splitting or curling. By making the surface corrugated, the skin was allowed to expand vertically as well as horizontally without overstressing, which also increased longitudinal strength. Despite the fact that it worked, aerodynamicists were initially aghast at the concept and accused the design engineers of trying to make a 1920s era Ford Trimotor — known for its corrugated aluminum skin — go Mach 3.[13]

[edit] Engines

Pratt & Whitney J58 engines beneath the SR-71 Blackbird on display at Imperial War Museum Duxford.
The Pratt & Whitney J58-P4 engines used in the Blackbird were the only military engines ever designed to operate continuously on afterburner, and actually became more efficient as the aircraft went faster. Each J58 engine could produce 32,500 lbf (145 kN) of static thrust. Conventional jet engines cannot operate continuously on afterburner and lose efficiency as airspeed increases.
The J58 was unique in that it was a hybrid jet engine. It could operate as a regular turbojet at low speeds, but at high speeds it became a ramjet. The engine can be thought of as a turbojet engine inside a ramjet engine. At lower speeds the turbojet provided most of the compression and most of the energy from fuel combustion. At higher speeds the turbojet throttled back and just sat in the middle of the engine, as air bypassed around it, having been compressed by the shock cones and only burning fuel in the afterburner.
In detail, air was initially compressed (and thus also heated) by the shock cones, which generated shockwaves that slowed the air down to subsonic speeds relative to the engine. The air then passed through 4 compressor stages and then was split by moveable vanes: some of the air entered the compressor fans ("core-flow" air), while the rest of the air went straight to the afterburner (via 6 bypass tubes). The air traveling on through the turbojet was further compressed (and thus further heated), and then fuel was added to it in the combustion chamber—it then reached the maximum temperature anywhere in the Blackbird, just under the temperature where the turbine blades would start to soften. After passing through the turbine (and thus being cooled somewhat), the core-flow air went through the afterburner and met with any bypass air.
At around Mach 3, the increased heating from the shock cone compression, plus the heating from the compressor fans, were already enough to get the core air to high temperatures, and little fuel could be added in the combustion chamber without the turbine blades melting. This meant the whole compressor-combustor-turbine set-up in the core of the engine provided less power, and the Blackbird flew predominantly on air bypassed straight to the afterburners, forming a large ramjet effect. No other aircraft does this. (This shows how the temperature tolerance of the turbine blades in a jet engine determine how much fuel can be burned, and thus to a great extent determine how much thrust a jet engine can provide.)[13]
Performance at low speeds was anemic. Even passing the speed of sound required the aircraft to dive. The reason was that the size of the turbojets were traded to reduce weight but to still allow the SR-71 to reach speeds where the ramjet effect became prominent and efficient; and then the plane became alive and rapidly accelerated to Mach 3.0. The efficiency was then good due to high compression and low drag through the engine and this permitted large distances to be covered at high speed.
Originally, the Blackbird's engines started up with the assistance of an external "start cart," a cart containing two Buick Wildcat V8 engines which were rolled out onto the runway underneath the aircraft. The two Buick engines powered a single, vertical driveshaft connected to a single J58 engine. Once one engine was started, the cart was wheeled over to the other side of the aircraft to start the other engine. The operation was deafening.

[edit] Astro-Inertial Navigation System (ANS)
Blackbird precision navigation requirements for route accuracy, sensor pointing and target tracking preceded the development and fielding of the Global Positioning System (GPS) and its family of position determining satellites. U-2 and A-12 Inertial Navigation Systems existed, but US Air Force planners wanted a system that would bound inertial position growth for longer missions envisioned for the R-12 / SR-71.
Nortronics, the electronics development organization of Northrop, had extensive astro-inertial experience, having provided an earlier generation system for the USAF Snark missile. With this background, Nortronics developed the Astro-Inertial Navigation System for the AGM-87 Skybolt missile, which was to be carried and launched from B-52H bombers. When the Skybolt Program was cancelled in December 1962, the assets Nortronics developed for the Skybolt Program were ordered to be adapted for the Blackbird program. A Nortronics "Skunkworks" type organization in Hawthorne, California completed the development and fielding of this system, sometimes referred to as the NAS-14 and/or the NAS-21.
The ANS primary alignment was done on the ground and was time consuming, but brought the inertial components to a high degree of level and accuracy for the start of a mission. A "blue light" source star tracker, which could detect and find stars during day or night, would then continuously track stars selected from the system's digital computer ephemeris as the changing aircraft position would bring them into view. Originally equipped with data on 56 selected stars, the system would correct inertial orientation errors with celestial observations. The resulting leveling accuracies obtained limited accelerometer errors and/or position growth.
Rapid ground alignments and air start abilities were later developed and added to the ANS. Attitude and position inputs to on-board systems and flight controls included the Mission Data Recorder, Auto-Nav steering between loaded destination points, automatic pointing and/or control of cameras at control points and optical or SLR sighting of fix points (this mission data being tape loaded into the ANS prior to takeoff).
The ANS was located behind the RSO station and tracked stars through a round, quartz window seen in photos of the upper fuselage. Cooling in the Blackbird Mach 3.0+ cruising environment was a serious development challenge resolved by Lockheed and Nortronics engineers during the early test phases. The ANS became a highly reliable and accurate self-contained navigation system.
Note: The original B-1A Offensive Avionics Request For Proposal (RFP) required the installation and integration of a NAS-14 system, but cost cutting changes later deleted it from the B-1. Some U2-Rs did receive the NAS-21 system, but newer Inertial and GPS systems replaced them.

[edit] Sensors and Payloads
Original capabilities for the SR-71 included optical/infrared imagery systems, side-looking radar (SLR), electronic intelligence (ELINT) gathering systems, defensive systems (for countering missile and airborne fighter threats) and recorders for SLR, ELINT and maintenance data.
Imagery systems used on the Blackbird were diverse. At the simple end of the spectrum, SR-71s were equipped with a Fairchild tracking camera of modest resolution and a HRB Singer infrared-tracking IR camera, both of which ran during the entire mission to document where the aircraft flew and answer any post-flight "political" charges of overflight. Further advances included equipping Blackbirds with two of ITEK's Operational Objective Cameras (OOC) that provided stereo imagery left and right of the flight track or an ITEK Optical Bar Camera (OBC) that replaced the OOCs and was carried in the nose in place of the SLR. The ultimate advance in imagery was the HYCON Technical Objective Camera (TEOC) that could look straight down or up to 45 degrees left or right of centerline. SR-71s were equipped with two of them, each with a six-inch resolution and the ability to show such details as the painted lines in parking lots from an altitude of 83,000 feet. In the later years of the SR-71 operation, usage of the infrared camera was discontinued.
Side-looking radar, built by Goodyear Aerospace in Arizona, was carried in the removable nose section (which could be loaded with the SLR antenna in the maintenance shop before installation on the Blackbird). It was eventually replaced by Loral's Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar System (ASARS-1) and built and supported by Goodyear. Both the first SLR and ASARS-1 were ground mapping imaging systems and could collect data in fixed swaths left or right of centerline or from a spot location where higher resolution was desired. As an example, in passing abeam of an open door aircraft hangar, ASARS-1 could provide meaningful data on the hangar's contents.
ELINT gathering systems, called the Electro Magnetic Reconnaissance System (EMR) built by AIL could be carried in both the left and right chine bays to provide a wide view of the electronic signal fields the Blackbird was flying through. Computer loaded instructions looked for items of special Intelligence Interest.
Defensive systems, built by several leading electronic countermeasures (ECM) companies included (and evolved over the years of the Blackbird's operational life) Systems A, A2, A2C, B, C, C2, E, G, H and M. Several of these different frequency/purpose payloads would be loaded for a particular mission to match the threat environment expected for that mission. They, their warning and active electronic capabilities, and the Blackbird's ability to accelerate and climb when under attack resulted in the SR-71's long and proven survival track record.
Recording systems captured SLR phase shift history data (for ground correlation after landing), ELINT-gathered data, and Maintenance Data Recorder (MDR) information for post flight ground analysis of the aircraft and its systems' overall health (humorous stories accompanied some of the flight crews' discovery that the voice track in the MDR recorded interphone conversations between pilot and RSO and tanker aircraft crew members during refueling hook-ups).
In later years of its operational life, a data-link system was added that would allow ASARS-1 and ELINT data from about 2,000 nm of track coverage to be downlinked if the SR-71 was within "contact" with a mutually equipped ground station.

[edit] Flight Simulator
The Link Simulator Company's SR-71 Flight Simulator was developed during 1963 – 1965 under a deep "black" security blanket because it and the team Link assigned to it were given access to CIA OXCART and USAF R-12 / SR-71 clearances, the complete list of names of classified vendors supplying parts and software that had to be simulated, the total aircraft performance envelope data and a government-produced satellite photo montage of almost the entire continental United States to provide optical imagery for the RSO's portion of the Flight Simulator. This later capability was mounted on a separate, large, rectangular glass plate (approximately 6 feet by 12 feet in size) over which moved an optical sighting head that traveled at the scaled speed and direction of the Blackbird during its simulated flight. Realistic and accurate images were then displayed in the Optical View Sight and SLR RCD (Radar Correlator Display) in the RSO cockpit. Imagery was not provided to the pilot's simulator, which like the RSO simulator, had translucent window panels with varying degrees of lighting to change a simulated flight from daylight to night flying conditions.
Instructor positions were behind both the pilot's and the RSO's cockpits with monitoring, malfunction and emergency problem controls provided. The simulator halves could be flown as separate cockpits with different training agendas or in a team mode where intercom, instrument readings and air vehicle/sub-systems performance were integrated. Although most simulator flights were in a flight suit "shirt sleeve" environment, selected flights during a crew's checkout training were made with the crew wearing the complete David Clark Company's Full Pressure Suit.
In 1965, when the first Beale AFB Instructor Pilot/RSO crew (wearing civilian clothes only) visited the Flight Simulator during USAF checkout and acceptance trials at Link's upper New York state facilities, they were surprised to park in front of a busy, active grocery store and then be escorted quietly to a side door that led them into a hidden, rear portion of the building that was Link's highly classified "Skunkworks" type facility for the Blackbird program. Total secrecy was so complete that no one in the New York township site was aware of what was going on behind the busy checkout stands selling food-stuffs and beverages.
In 1965, the Flight Simulator was transferred to Beale AFB, California and the 9th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing's SAGE building, which provided vault level security for it plus the Wing Headquarters, Flight Mission Planning, and Intelligence Analysis / Exploitation of Blackbird mission products.
Besides SR-71 flight crew training and currency usage, the Flight Simulator was used several times by Lockheed and CIA operatives to analyze Groom Lake A-12 problems and accidents with similar assistance provided for SR-71 flights at Edwards AFB. Another unique feature was that an actual flight mission tape for the SR-71 ANS could be loaded into the Flight Simulator's digital computers, which had been designed and programmed by Link engineers to emulate the Nortronics ANS. During Category II testing at Edwards AFB, some types of ANS navigation errors could be duplicated in the Flight Simulator at Beale AFB with Link engineers often then assisting in software fixes to the main ANS flight software programs.
At the conclusion of SR-71 flying at Beale AFB, the Flight Simulator (minus the RSO optical imagery system) was transferred to the NASA Dryden facility at Edwards AFB in support of NASA SR-71 flight operations. Upon completion of all USAF and NASA SR-71 operations at Edwards, the Flight Simulator was moved in July, 2006 to the Frontiers of Flight Museum on Love Field Airport in Dallas,Texas (www.flightmuseum.com) and with support from the Museum and Link (now, L-3 Communications Simulation and Training Division) it is intended to be available for viewing by Museum visitors.

[edit] Myth and lore
The plane developed a small cult following, given its design, specifications, and the aura of secrecy that surrounded it. Specifically, these groups cite that the aircraft's maximum speed is limited by the specific maximum temperature for the compressor inlet of 427 °C (800 °F).[24][25] Some speculate that the former condition can be alleviated by superior compressor design and composition, while the latter might be solved with improved shock cones. Recent studies of inlets of this type have shown that with current technology could allow for inlet speeds with a lower bound of Mach 6.[26]
It is known that the J58 engines were most efficient at around Mach 3,[27] and this was the Blackbird's typical cruising speed. The SR-71's Pratt & Whitney J58 engines never exceeded test bench values above Mach 3.6 in unclassified tests. Given the history of the plane, the advanced and classified nature of much of its original design, and most importantly, the fact that no SR-71 exists in a form that is immediately airworthy, it may never be known what the true design tolerances of the aircraft were, or if these tolerances were ever approached in flight. This undoubtedly contributes to the mystique of the SR-71.
The SR-71 was the first operational aircraft designed around a stealthy shape and materials. The most visible marks of its low radar cross section (RCS) are its inwardly-canted vertical stabilizers and the fuselage chines. Comparably, a plane of the SR-71's size should generate a radar image the size of a flying barn, but its actual return is more like that of a single door. Though with a much smaller RCS than expected for a plane of its size, it was still easily detected, because the exhaust stream would return its own radar signature (even though a special cesium compound was added to the fuel to reduce this signature). Furthermore, this is no comparison to the later F-117, whose RCS is on the order of a small ball bearing.[28]

[edit] Succession
Much speculation exists regarding a replacement aircraft for the SR-71, most notably an aircraft identified as the Lockheed Aurora. This is due to limitations on the use of spy satellites which are governed by the laws of orbital mechanics. It may take 24 hours before a satellite is in proper orbit to photograph a particular target, far longer than the time requirements of a reconnaissance plane. Spy planes can provide the most current intelligence information and collect it when lighting conditions are optimum. The fly-over orbit of spy satellites may also be predicted and can allow the enemy to hide assets when they know the satellite is above - a drawback spy planes do not suffer. These factors have lead many to doubt that the United States military has abandoned the concept of spy planes to complement reconnaissance satellites.[29]
The fact that the SR-71 was still able to perform its duties with an excellent service record at the time of its retirement, that the need for its reconnaissance duties had not subsided at the time of its retirement, and that it was retired then pressed back into active service for a short time before being quickly retired again, give credibility to the rumors of a successor aircraft. Whether that aircraft is the Lockheed SR-91 Aurora is still unknown to the general public.
Such a successor may be linked to a classified project rumored to exist at the Lockheed Skunk Works in the early 1980s to build a hybrid scramjet-powered reconnaissance aircraft capable of speeds near Mach 5. Production of the aircraft may have been incorporated into the 1988 Department of Defense budget, with the aircraft becoming operational around 1989. The fact that none of the systems suggested as replacements for the SR-71 are capable of effectively fulfilling the SR-71 duties, with regard to time sensitive reconnaissance and penetration of highly defended areas, gives additional weight to the existence of an undisclosed replacement. It is also possible that the SR-71 was retired due to shift from spy planes to low-speed "stealthy" unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and a reliance on reconnaissance satellites.

[edit] Specifications (SR-71A)

General characteristics
Crew: 2
Payload: 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) of sensors
Length: 107 ft 5 in (32.74 m)
Wingspan: 55 ft 7 in (16.94 m)
Height: 18 ft 6 in (5.64 m)
Wing area: 1,800 ft2 (170 m2)
Empty weight: 67,500 lb (30 600 kg)
Loaded weight: 170,000 lb (77 000 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 172,000 lb (78 000 kg)
Powerplant: 2× Pratt & Whitney J58-1 continuous-bleed afterburning turbojets, 32,500 lbf (145 kN) each
Wheel track: 16 ft 8 in (5.08 m)
Wheel base: 37 ft 10 in (11.53 m)
Aspect ratio: 1.7
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 3.3+ (2,200+ mph, 3530+ km/h) at 80,000 ft (24,000m)
Range:
Combat: 2,900 nm (5400 km)
Ferry: 3,200 nm (5,925 km)
Service ceiling: 85,000 ft (25,900m, 16 miles)
Rate of climb: 11,810 ft/min (60 m/s)
Wing loading: 94 lb/ft2 (460 kg/m2)
Thrust/weight: 0.382

[edit] SR-71 aircraft on display
Places to see a Blackbird on display include:
Multiple variants:
National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Dayton, Ohio (an SR-71A, YF-12A and M-21/D-21 drone)
SR-71A variant:
Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida
Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Edwards Air Force Base, California
Air Force Plant 42 Production Flight Test Installation, Palmdale, California
American Air Museum in Britain at the Imperial War Museum, Duxford, Cambridgeshire, England (the only example displayed outside the US)
Barksdale Air Force Base, Bossier City, Louisiana
Beale Air Force Base, Marysville, California
Castle Air Museum, Atwater, California
Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon
Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas
Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas
March Field Air Museum, Riverside, California
Museum of Aviation, Warner Robins, Georgia
Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona
Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, at Washington Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia
Strategic Air and Space Museum in Ashland, Nebraska
Virginia Aviation Museum in Richmond, Virginia
SR-71B variant:
Kalamazoo Aviation History Museum, Kalamazoo, Michigan
SR-71C variant:
Hill Air Force Base Museum, Ogden, Utah
A-12 predecessor:
Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama
California Science Center in Los Angeles, California (Two-canopied A-12 trainer model)
Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum, New York, New York
Minnesota Air Guard Museum, Bloomington, Minnesota (Twin Cities International Airport) (This A-12 is currently being shipped to Langley, Virginia to be placed on exhibit on the grounds of the Central Intelligence Agency)
U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama
San Diego Aerospace Museum in San Diego, California
Southern Museum of Flight in Birmingham, Alabama (on loan from National Museum of the United States Air Force)
Air Force Flight Test Center Museum, Blackbird airpark, at Edwards Air Force Base, Palmdale, California (60-6924, the first A-12 to fly, on 26 April 1962)
MD-21 predecessor (A-12 variant):
Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington
YF-12 predecessor (A-12 variant)
National Museum of the United States Air Force, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Dayton, Ohio.
unknown variant
Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas
See also External links below

[edit] Other images

M/D-21 Blackbird at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington

SR-71 Blackbird at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center

SR-71 Blackbird at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center

Blackbird at the Strategic Air and Space Museum in Ashland, Nebraska

SR-71 and D-21B at the Pima Air & Space Museum

SR-71A (#61-7971) and D-21 drone at the Evergreen Aviation Museum in McMinnville, Oregon

Lockheed SR-71 a fost un avion strategic de recunoaştere avansat, cu rază lungă de acţiune, capabil de Mach 3, dezvoltat din avioanele YF-12A şi A-12 Oxcart, de către the Lockheed Skunk Works.

[modifică] Sistem de navigaţie astro-inerţial
Blackbird avea nevoie de date precise pentru navigaţie: corectitudinea rutei, orientarea senzorilor şi urmărirea ţintei. Sistemul GPS era de abia în faza de cercetare iniţială pe atunci.
Nortronics, divizia de electronică a lui Northrop, a lucrat la asemenea siteme astro-inerţiale, printre altele pentru racheta de croazieră intercontinentală Snark. Cu această experienţă, Nortronics a dezvoltat Sistemul de Navigaţie Astro-Inerţială pentru racheta AGM-87 Skybolt, care urma să fie lansată de bombardiere B-52H. Când proiectul Skybolt a fost anulat în decembrie 1962, datele acumulate au permis Nortronics să le adapteze pentru programul Blackbird. Sistemul a fost numit NAS-14 şi/ori NAS-21.
Alinierea pricipală a sistemului era efectuată la sol şi dura timp, dar astfel componentele inerţiale erau aduse la un nivel înalt de precizie pentru misiune. Un subsitem de urmărire a stelelor, care putea să detecteze stelele zi şi noapte, avea să urmărească continuu stelele selectate din baza de date digitală a avionului imediat ce poziţia constant schimbătoare a avionului avea să le aducă în câmpul vizual. Iniţial a fost echipat cu date despre 56 de stele, sistemul avea să corecteze erorile de orientare inerţială cu repere stelare. Precizia care rezulta avea să limiteze erorile accelerometrului
Mai târziu au fost dezvoltate alinierie rapide la sol şi de pornire în timpului zborului. Datele care erau transmise sistemelor de bord şi de control al zborului includ o cutie neagră care înregistra datele zborul, pilotarea automată prin navigaţie între reperele terestre stocate în baza de date, orientarea automată a camerelor şi detectarea optică sau cu radarul lateral a punctelor fixe (aceste date erau stocate prin bandă magnetică în avion înainte de decolare).
Sistemul de navigaţie era situat în spatele copilotului şi urmărea stelele printr-un geam rotund de cuarţ, care se poate observa în fotografiile care arată partea superioară a fuzelajului. Menţinerea acestui sistem la temperaturi scăzute la viteze de croazieră de Mach 3.0 era o sarcină deosebit de dificilă, dar pe care inginerii de la Lockheed şi Nortronics au rezolvat-o în perioada de teste iniţiale ale avionului.

Nokia N75

2007-08-10T05:06:00.002-07:00

The Nokia N75 has now been officially announced by Nokia. The N75 is Nokias smallest multimedia computer in a nice clamshell case. This slick looking phone has a whole host of mobile web and multimedia features; including a funky external display, digital music player, FM radio, speakers, 2MP camera works on a wholeload of networks.
Or why not try the fully loaded Nokia N95
Features
WCDMA, EDGE and GSM2-megapixel camera 16x digital zoom,320 x 240 pixels, 16 million colors displayAdvanced digital music player iRSSVideo capture and playbackIntegrated 3D stereo speakers
Release date: Some point before christmas 2006.

Nokia 7373

2007-08-10T05:06:00.001-07:00

The Nokia 7373 features a 2 MP camera, music and video player and stereo speakers in a unique design where “Elaborate tribal markings provide a unique point for contemporary design interpretation” - (translation: it’s good looking).
Key Features2 Megapixel cameraMusic, video player with stereo speakersFashion headset, pouch and phone jewellery

Kakashi Hatake

2007-08-10T05:03:00.000-07:00

Debut Manga Chapter 3
Naruto Episode 3
Seiyū Kazuhiko Inoue
Voice actor(s) Dave Wittenberg
Profile
Age 26-27 in Part I
29 in Part II
Birthday September 15
Blood Type O
Height 181 cm
Weight 67.5 kg
Known relatives Sakumo Hatake (father, deceased)
Information
Current rank Jonin
Current affiliation Konohagakure
Current team 8-Man squad (Kakashi Hatake, Yamato, Naruto Uzumaki, Sakura Haruno, Sai, Shino Aburame, Hinata Hyuga, Kiba Inuzuka)
Previous team Team Fourth (Fourth Hokage, Kakashi Hatake, Obito Uchiha, Rin)
ANBU (Kakashi Hatake, Yamato, other ANBU)
Team 7 (Kakashi Hatake, Naruto Uzumaki, Sasuke Uchiha, Sakura Haruno)

Background
See also: Kakashi Gaiden

Kakashi's first team under the Fourth HokageLike his father, Sakumo Hatake whose skills have been compared to that of the Legendary Ninja, Kakashi is considered a genius shinobi, graduating from the Ninja Academy at age 5 and achieving the rank of Chunin at 6. A few years after these accomplishments, Kakashi's father was disgraced by the village for abandoning a mission in favor of saving his comrades, which cost the Land of Fire dearly. Deeply ashamed and ostracized even by those he had saved, Sakumo committed seppuku, leaving Kakashi to bear witness to the event. After his father's suicide, Kakashi began to adhere strictly to the rules of the shinobi – in particular the rule dictating that the success of the mission must come before the well being of one's teammates, causing him to become arrogant, humorless, and by-the-book.

At the age of 13, Kakashi achieved Jonin status. As a reward for his accomplishment, he was assigned to lead his team on a sabotage mission to blow up a bridge in order to prevent enemy forces from attacking Konoha. Shortly after the mission started, Kakashi's teammate, Rin was captured by enemy shinobi. Kakashi's other teammate, Obito Uchiha immediately stated his intention to save her, but Kakashi said they had to focus on completing the mission, opting not to make the same mistake his father had. Though Kakashi believed that they had to complete their objective and they parted ways, a little reflection on Obito's words and Rin's prior kindness eventually convinced him that his father had done the right thing in saving his teammates. This revelation prompted Kakashi to turn back to join Obito in the rescue effort, although he initially claims that he did not believe Obito could survive on his own—a statement that is more or less supported by how his arrival coincided with saving his oblivious teammate from a ninja's attack.

During their attempt to save Rin, Kakashi lost his left eye as a result of taking an enemy ninja's attack for Obito. To protect Kakashi in return, Obito managed to awaken his Sharingan and killed their assailant. Soon after saving Rin, a rockfall technique was triggered and a rock struck Kakashi on his blind side. He would have been buried beneath the rocks had Obito not pushed Kakashi out of the way, getting the right side of his body almost completely crushed in the process. Shortly before he died, Obito had Rin (a medical ninja) implant his Sharingan eye in Kakashi's damaged eye socket as a gift. As his first act with his new eye, Kakashi avenged Obito by killing the enemy ninja with his now-perfected Chidori technique, bringing the Kakashi of today into being.

Years later Kakashi would become a member of the Konohagakure ANBU where he served as a squad leader. During this time, he had several kōhai, named Yugao Uzuki and Tenzo, and recognized the latter as the most successful of his kōhai. It is unknown when or why he left ANBU, but he still wears iron guards on his gloves, a characteristic of ANBU uniforms.

[edit] Personality
Obito's death profoundly changed Kakashi, and Kakashi adopted many of Obito's traits. One such trait was Obito's concept of teamwork, which is most clearly seen in the way Kakashi tests newly-graduated students hoping to become a squad under him. He uses the bell test to test his students, which requires the three students to get the two bells he keeps on his person. Only those who get a bell get to pass, which would be difficult even with teamwork, as at least one ninja would fail regardless. However, the rule is only a ruse; the point of the test is to foster teamwork and to teach the students that teamwork is more important than the rules. Team 7 is the only team to realize this, and as such becomes the only team Kakashi passes into Genin-status. Kakashi also inherits Obito's chronic tardiness, due primarily to losing track of time during his frequent visits to Konoha's memorial site, where Obito's name is engraved. Ironically, this very habit is one that Kakashi was often annoyed at Obito about. Obito was supposedly late due to random good deeds.

Despite these changes, some of Kakashi's previous personality remains. He is fairly dispassionate compared to his subordinates and fellow Jonin, almost never showing emotion. He often says things that sound harsh but mean well, such as suggesting that Rock Lee brought his career-ending injuries on himself by using forbidden taijutsu techniques. While Kakashi is willing to help his students, he remains somewhat aloof and unwilling to let anyone too close to him, noting that he no longer has anyone important to him.

Kakashi's personal life appears to be as much of a mystery as the face behind the mask he has worn for most of his ninja career. He has no living family, or at least none he cares to acknowledge, and he's confirmed that everyone he loves is already dead. He is immediately recognizable as the son of (or mistaken for) his father, the "White Fang of Konoha" (木ノ葉の白い牙, Konoha no Shiroi Kiba?). Though his face has never been seen, episode 101, which is devoted to Team 7 trying to remove their sensei's mask, implies that he is in fact quite handsome. He takes off his mask in front of Team 7 only to reveal another mask, suggesting that his face, like much of the rest of his personality, is something he does not readily share.

Kakashi has an ongoing, albeit slightly one-sided, rivalry with Might Guy, with Guy constantly proclaiming that Kakashi is his rival, and considering his and Kakashi's subordinates rivals. Kakashi, however, seems indifferent to their rivalry, which annoys Guy to no end. Guy randomly challenges Kakashi to contests of skill, and Kakashi has acquired a record of 49 wins and 50 losses in doing so. Given that the contests that make up this figure are so varied (ranging from Rock, Paper, Scissors to sumo-wrestling), this is not much of an achievement on Guy's part. Nevertheless, Guy is proud of his record.

Though he evasively says that he has "many hobbies" when asked about himself, he is commonly seen reading of "Icha Icha Paradise" (イチャイチャパラダイス, Icha Icha Paradaisu?, literally "Make Out Paradise"), an adult and probably pornographic novel authored by Jiraiya that is a runaway bestseller in the Naruto world. Kakashi most prominently reads it while training and speaking with his team, and is later seen reading the second known volume in the series, "Icha Icha Violence" (イチャイチャバイオレンス, Icha Icha Baiorensu?, literally "Make Out Violence"). In Part II Naruto gives him the new "Icha Icha Tactics" (イチャイチャタクティクス, Icha Icha Takutikusu?, literally "Make Out Tactics"), which, during their second bell test, Naruto manages to use against him by attempting to spoil the ending and thus distracting Kakashi long enough for him and Sakura to grab the bells.

[edit] Abilities

Kakashi's Sharingan.Kakashi's Sharingan eye gives him a significant advantage in battle, as he can copy enemy techniques and use them as his own, as well as track and predict his opponent's movements flawlessly. Because it is a transplanted eye, his Sharingan eye is always active. While this would not be much of a problem for an Uchiha, his non-Uchiha blood causes it to use much more chakra than it should. Because of this, he covers it with his headband and only utilizes it in the most dangerous battles. Kakashi's use of the Sharingan is as good as that of Itachi Uchiha, though the aforementioned handicaps brought about by the nature of his eye make him somewhat weaker in comparison. In Part II Kakashi is able to develop his own Mangekyo Sharingan. With his variant he is able to manipulate space-time and utilize it to conduct long range attacks, and in its two uses has been capable of severing another's arms and otherwise sending things to different dimensions. Much like the standard Sharingan, the Mangekyo Sharingan tires Kakashi considerably, and after using it only three times he was hospitalized for weeks due to its chakra usage.

With his Sharingan Kakashi has been able to copy more than one thousand jutsu, giving him the nickname "Copy Ninja Kakashi" (コピー忍者のカカシ, Kopī Ninja no Kakashi?) or "Sharingan Kakashi" (写輪眼のカカシ, Sharingan no Kakashi?). As a result, Kakashi's arsenal most prominently features ninjutsu abilities and has led to him becoming a specialist in the field. Many of the jutsu he has been seen copying in the series are water-based attacks, though most of these he only uses against the person he copies them from. He does, however, use Water Release: Water Encampment Wall on occasion as a way to block attacks. He less frequently uses other elemental attacks such as Fire Release: Great Fireball Technique to attack opponents or Earth Release: Inner Decapitation Technique (土遁・心中斬首の術, Doton: Shinjū Zanshu no Jutsu?, Viz "Groundhog Technique Decapitation", English TV "Headhunter Jutsu") to pull opponents below ground and immobilize them. He can also create shadow clones, though because he lacks Naruto's chakra reserves, he exercises the ability very rarely.

While Kakashi specializes in the use of ninjutsu due to his Sharingan he is fairly adept with other jutsu types, though his use of them is rarely seen. Demonic Illusion: Hell Viewing Technique (魔幻・奈烙見の術, Magen: Narakumi no Jutsu?) causes his opponent to see what they would find a horrifying vision, keeping them preoccupied until they can overcome the illusion. Thousand Years of Death (千年殺し, Sennen Goroshi?) consists of Kakashi forcefully plunging his index and middle fingers into an opponent's rectum. While only capable of launching the opponent humorous distances in typical uses, the fingers can be replaced with kunai attached with exploding tags to actually do damage to an opponent. He has also started using sealing jutsu, as seen when he attempts to use Evil Sealing Method (封邪法印, Fūja Hōin?, English TV "Curse Sealing") to seal Sasuke's cursed seal. His proficiency with this ability seems to be in its beginning stages, as the aforementioned jutsu is reliant on the user's will to keep the seal active. He is also quite adept at taijutsu and often matches taijutsu skill with his rival, Might Guy. Because of his well-rounded prowess in jutsu, Kakashi is the highest-ranking technique specialist and one of the strongest ninja in Konoha, as indicated by both Sakura and the manga databooks.

When he was younger Kakashi was taught how to use the Rasengan by the Fourth Hokage. Because the Rasengan is meant to have the user's chakra nature mixed with it, Kakashi attempted to add his lightning-based chakra to it, though was ultimately unsuccessful. In time he instead created the Chidori, which has since become the only jutsu that he has not copied from someone else. After the jutsu's initial creation Kakashi was unable to use the Chidori to its full potential as the sheer speed of the attack left his normal eyes unable to see any form of an enemy counterattack. After acquiring the Sharingan, however, he was able to overcome this shortcoming. Through repeated use and increased proficiency with it, Kakashi's Chidori has been upgraded and renamed to the Lightning Blade due to him having cut through a bolt of lightning with it.

Kakashi has his own personal pack of Ninken, which he calls into battle with the Summoning Technique. The dogs were apparently trained by Kakashi, and most are even able to speak. Kakashi typically uses the dogs for tracking purposes and summons them whenever he is in need of finding someone. The dogs can communicate with Kakashi via howls. If need be, the dogs can hold someone in place while Kakashi catches up.

Since being defeated by Itachi Uchiha in Part I, Kakashi has apparently trained to increase the speed at which he forms seals. Naruto and Sakura both remark upon this speed during their second bell test in Part II.

[edit] Plot overview
While he makes frequent appearances throughout Part I, Kakashi's role largely deals with protecting his students and keeping them unified. Most prominently he tries to steer Sasuke away from seeing Orochimaru as a source of power, even teaching him how to use the Chidori so that he will not rely on the Cursed Seal for power. In time, however, Sasuke begins to turn against his team and readily attacks them, which, despite Kakashi's protests and attempts to convince him that revenge should not be pursued, ultimately leads to his betraying Konoha. As Naruto and Sasuke carry out a final battle Kakashi rushes to their location to prevent them from killing each other. He arrives too late and Sasuke escapes, and Naruto and Sakura go their separate ways to find their own methods of getting stronger.

Kakashi begins to take part in more battles in Part II as he no longer needs to focus his attention on his students, who have improved greatly over the timeskip. As Akatsuki becomes increasingly more active, Kakashi joins the various battles in defeating its members. Likewise, Kakashi joins Naruto and Sakura's efforts in bringing Sasuke back to Konoha and has since organized an 8-man team that is in part dedicated to this cause. Still, Kakashi has not fully outlived his role as guidance for his students, and he helps Naruto in creating the Wind Release: Spiraling Shuriken.

[edit] Other media
In the first Naruto movie, Team 7 encounters numerous Yukigakure ninja that seem to know Kakashi from prior encounters, though this is never elaborated upon. Towards the movie's end, Kakashi encounters Nadare Roga and defeats him using a variant of the Front Lotus.

Kakashi also appears in the third Naruto movie, acting as the leader of Naruto, Sakura, and Rock Lee. He fights Ishidate during the course of the movie, and has his arm turned to stone by his ability. He is later restored by Sakura. Near the end of the movie, Kakashi provides a distraction for the rest of his team by using a water jutsu to ward off Shabadaba's soldiers.

[edit] See also
List of fictional characters who can manipulate electricity
List of fictional characters who can manipulate earth

[edit] Sources
First Official Data Book (秘伝・臨の書キャラクターオフィシャルデータBOOK, Hiden: Rin no Sho Character Official Data Book?)
Second Official Data Book (秘伝・闘の書キャラクターオフィシャルデータBOOK, Hiden: Tō no Sho Character Official Data Book?)
Jump's 2nd Great Hero Book's Mini Data Book (秘伝・翔の書オフィシャルキャラクターデータBOOK mini, Hiden: Shō no Sho Official Character Data Book mini?)
Naruto anime and manga Guidebook (秘伝・翔の書オフィシャルキャラクターデータBOOK mini, Hiden: Shō no Sho Official Character Data Book mini?)
Taken directly from the Naruto manga chapters and anime episodes.
Characters in Naruto v • d • e
Ninja: Naruto Uzumaki, Sasuke Uchiha, Sakura Haruno & Kakashi Hatake
Shikamaru Nara, Choji Akimichi, Ino Yamanaka & Asuma Sarutobi
Kiba Inuzuka, Shino Aburame, Hinata Hyuga & Kurenai Yuhi
Rock Lee, Neji Hyuga, Tenten & Might Guy
Gaara, Kankuro & Temari
Jiraiya, Orochimaru, Tsunade & the Third Hokage
Zabuza Momochi & Haku • Kabuto Yakushi • Sai & Yamato
Ninja groups: Konoha ninja • Konoha 11 • Minor allies • Minor villains
Akatsuki: Organization • Itachi Uchiha • Other members
Countries: Land of Fire • Land of Sound • Land of Wind
Animals: Tailed beasts • Summons

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakashi_Hatake"
Categories: Characters introduced in 1999 | Naruto characters | Fictional characters who can duplicate themselves

F-16 Fighting Falcon

2007-08-10T05:00:00.000-07:00

Type Multirole fighter
Manufacturer General Dynamics/Lockheed Martin
Maiden flight 1974-02-02
Introduction 1978-08-17
Status Active: 724
Reserve: 69
ANG: 522[1]
Primary users United States Air Force
24 other users
Number built >4,000
Unit cost US$14.6 million (F-16A/B)
US$18.8 million (F-16C/D) in 1998

Variants General Dynamics F-16XL
Mitsubishi F-2
The F-16 Fighting Falcon is an American multirole jet fighter aircraft developed by General Dynamics and Lockheed Martin for the United States Air Force. Designed as a lightweight fighter, it evolved into a successful multirole aircraft. The Falcon's versatility is a paramount reason it was a success on the export market, serving 24 countries.[2] The F-16 is the largest Western fighter program with over 4,000 aircraft built since production started in 1976. Though no longer produced for the US Air Force, it is still produced for export.[3]

The Fighting Falcon is a dogfighter with innovations including a frameless, bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while under high g-forces, and reclined seat to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot. It was also the first fighter aircraft to be deliberately built to sustain 9g turns. It is also one of the few jets with a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one, giving the Falcon excellent acceleration.[citation needed]

Although the F-16's official name is "Fighting Falcon", it is known to its pilots as the "Viper", after the Battlestar Galactica starfighter.[4]

In 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation,[5] which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta.[6]

[edit] Development
Main article: Light Weight Fighter
During the 1960s the U.S. Air Force and Navy both concluded that the future of air combat would be determined by increasingly sophisticated missiles. Future "fighters" would be designed primarily for long range, high speed, and equipped with extremely large radar systems in order to detect opposing fighters at long range. This made them much more like interceptors than classic fighter designs. In the early 1960s both the Air Force and Navy expected to use the F-111 (then still in development as the TFX) and F-4 Phantoms for their long and medium range needs complemented by several single-engine designs including upgraded F-100 Super Sabres, F-104 Starfighters, and F-8 Crusaders. Future twin-engine fighter programs were getting underway and the Air Force began a replacement for its single-engine fighter designs to maintain its high-low mix of air superiority aircraft.

F-16CG Fighting Falcon at Paris Air Show 2007Real-world experience in the Vietnam War showed the continued need for the 'high-low' fighter matrix system. Soviet-bloc fighters over Vietnam were proving to be more of a problem than expected for US designs. Even though the US had very large kills to losses ratio in its favor, combat revealed some shortcomings. Missiles of this era still had notable reliability issues, and restrictions on how they were functionally used. Combat invariably closed to short ranges where air-combat maneuverability and short range air-air weapons became critical. Dedicated interceptors like the F-102 Delta Dagger had also been tested in combat which revealed certain shortcomings. Although US training, doctrine and air control more than made up for these disadvantages, it was nevertheless clear to some in the Air Force that the all-missile doctrine was seriously flawed. Both aircraft of the future high-low mix for the USAF would have guns (F-15 and F-16).

In particular, Colonel John Boyd developed the theory of energy maintenance in fighter combat, which relied on larger wings in order to preserve maneuverability. Larger wings would mean more drag in flight, usually resulting in lower range and slower top speed (although larger wings can also result in greater range due to increased payload and fuel). He felt this was a fair trade-off for a "real" fighter design. At about this time the navalized F-111 was running into serious problems, and was eventually abandoned in favor of a new design, the F-14 Tomcat. A combination of Boyd's tireless advocacy of maneuverability, and what is often viewed as a failure of the F-111 to develop into a suitable fighter, and notably the rather over-inflated performance estimates of the MiG-25 led the USAF to also start development of their own fighter design, the F-15 Eagle.

It was not long before the F-15 started growing into a very large design that appeared to be turning into an "F-111 mark II". Boyd was frustrated by this development, and convinced a number of others that the F-15 would need to be complemented by larger numbers of smaller fighters like previous twin-engine fighters. A group of interested parties formed the self-named "fighter mafia" and agitated for the development of the Light Weight Fighter. They eventually won a small amount of money, only $149,000 (~$715,000 year 2000 dollars) to conduct studies into such a design. Northrop had always been a proponent of light-weight designs and had continually developed plans for an advanced F-5 Freedom Fighter, and received $100,000. General Dynamics, looking to redeem themselves from the controversial F-111, received the remainder.

In May 1971 the US Congress released a report that was highly critical of both the F-14 and F-15 programs. They proposed funding the LWF with $50 million and an additional $12 million the next year. Several companies submitted proposals, but General Dynamics and Northrop had such a head start that they were both asked to produce prototypes for head-to-head testing. These were ready in 1974, and in extensive testing General Dynamics' YF-16 proved somewhat better all-round, winning the LWF contest.

By this time a number of countries were looking for a multi-role replacement for their existing F-104Gs and other older designs. Up to this point, the LWF was merely an evaluation program with no plans to purchase models, but the possibility of a European order lead the Pentagon to reconsider. The Air Force was now seeking a multi-role fighter to replace the F-105, so the program was renamed the Air Combat Fighter (ACF). In September 1974, the Air Force announced plans to purchase 650 ACF's. On 13 January, 1975, Secretary of the Air Force John McLucas announced the selection of the YF-16, beating out Northrop's YF-17.

The F-16 is planned to remain in service with the U.S. Air Force until 2025.[7]

Please help improve this article by expanding this section.
Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion.
Please remove this message once the section has been expanded.
This section has been tagged since May 2007.

[edit] Design

F-16CJ Fighting Falcon with air-to-air and SEAD load.The F-16 is a single-engined, multi-role tactical aircraft. It is equipped with an M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root, and was almost always armed with two AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, one on each wingtip on a dedicated rail. More recent versions can be equipped with the AIM-120 AMRAAM on these rails instead. It can also be armed with a wide variety of air-to-air missiles and air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs, carried on a number of hardpoints under the wings.

From the very beginning, the F-16 was intended to be a cost-effective "workhorse" that could perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much simpler and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics (including the first use of fly-by-wire, earning it the nickname of "the electric jet") to maintain good performance.

[edit] Ergonomics and visibility
The pilot sits high in the fuselage with the canopy support-bow behind him, out of his field of view. This and the bubble canopy give the pilot an unobstructed field of view, a feature vital during air-to-air combat. The seat is reclined 30 degrees (other seats are typically inclined around 13 degrees). The control stick is mounted on the right armrest rather than between the legs as is traditional. In addition, a Heads-Up Display (HUD) displays vital information in the pilot's field of view.[8]

F-16C MLU cockpit.With the exception of the HUD, many of these features remain controversial to this day.[citation needed] The side-mounted stick makes it difficult for pilots to "switch hands" in order to operate cockpit controls with the right hand, often forcing them to use their left hand to operate controls on the center or right side of the cockpit (the latter being few). The reclined seat makes this difficult, as well as making it somewhat more difficult to look directly to the rear.[citation needed] It has been suggested that the actual benefit in terms of g capability is very close to zero, and the real reason for the large incline was to make the seat fit into the aircraft. The canopy itself has the problem of having to be much thicker than in most aircraft, where only the portion between the cockpit frame and nose have to be thick enough to guard against bird strikes. The F-16's canopy has to be much thicker overall, and as a result is quite heavy.

It is worth noting that some of these features have been used on newer aircraft design. The F-22 uses a single-piece canopy like the F-16, although the F-35 and Eurofighter Typhoon do not. Seat angles have universally been less than the F-16, normally around 15 degrees. The F-22 and F-35 both have deeper forward fuselages than the F-16, which must be very shallow to avoid negatively impacting airflow into the chin-mounted intake.[citation needed]

[edit] Fly by wire
The F-16A/B uses a fly-by-wire flight control system with no mechanical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces. The flight control system began as an analog computer and switched to a digital computer on the C/D models.[9] Computer control is necessary for flight as a result of the inherent negative stability of the aircraft, a trait which trades stable flight for increased maneuverability.[10]

This lack of mechanical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces led to an unusual characteristic in the design of the control stick: originally, it did not move. The control stick instead detected pressure applied by the pilot and translated that pressure into control of the aircraft. This arrangement proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, so the control stick was given a small amount (less than a quarter of an inch (6 mm) in any direction) of play.

F-16CG Fighting Falcon at Paris Air Show 2007.The onboard computer makes thousands of calculations and corrections each second to keep the plane flying, freeing pilots to concentrate on tasks necessary to fulfill their intended role. The enhanced computer oversight also provides automatic flight coordination, utilizing all control surfaces (including the rudder) to keep the aircraft from entering performance hurting or even potentially dangerous situations such as unintentional slips or skids. This led to a common refrain heard from pilots: "You don't fly an F-16; it flies you".

[edit] Wing and strake configuration
Aerodynamic studies in the early 1960s demonstrated that the phenomenon known as “vortex lift” could be beneficially harnessed by the utilization of highly swept wing configurations, such as found in the Concorde supersonic aircraft and the Swedish Viggen canard configured aircraft. These favorable effects affected the aircraft’s lift capability and allowed the close-coupled wing to be extended to create higher angles of attack through use of a strong leading-edge vortex flow of a slender lifting surface. The leading edge of the wing’s blended forebody would thus increase the strength of the vortices and give the aircraft additional lift.

The exploitation of this aerodynamic phenomenon shaped the design of the F-16, which boasts cropped delta wings and long wing-body strakes, and is considered to be one of the significant elements responsible for its enduring success as a highly maneuverable fighter.

[edit] Negative static stability
An aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, depart from level and controlled flight. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, where a plane tends to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. However, positive static stability hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot's effort to maneuver; therefore, a plane with negative static stability will be more maneuverable. With a fly-by-wire system, such a plane can be kept in stable flight, its instability kept in check by the flight computers.

The YF-16 was the world's first aircraft to be slightly aerodynamically unstable by design. This feature is officially called "relaxed static stability." At subsonic speeds, the airplane is constantly on the verge of going out of control. This tendency is constantly caught and corrected by the FLCC (Flight Control Computer) and later the DFLCC (Digital Flight Control Computer), allowing for stable flight. When supersonic, the airplane exhibits positive static stability due to aerodynamic forces shifting aft between subsonic and supersonic flight.

[edit] Combat service

IAF F-16A Netz with 6.5 shotdown mark and Iraqi reactor bombing mark.Due to their ubiquity, the F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East.

In 1981, eight Israeli F-16s participated in a raid that destroyed Osiraq, an Iraqi nuclear reactor near Baghdad. During the same year, the Israeli Air Force obtained the first air-to-air "kills" for the entire F-16 series, shooting down a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter and a MiG-21 jet. The following year, during Operation Peace for Galilee (Lebanon War) Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft successfully on numerous occasions. F-16s were also used afterwards in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon.[citation needed]

During the Soviet-Afghan war, Pakistan Air Force F-16s shot down at least 10 Afghan and Soviet ground attack and transport aircraft (1986-1988).[11] The same border clash first saw the F-16's unusual dogfighting skills performed by the Pakistan Air Force.

In Operation Desert Storm of 1991, 249 USAF F-16s flew over 13,000 sorties in strikes against Iraq, the most of any Coalition aircraft, with five lost in combat, three to surface-to-air missiles (SAM), one to a premature bomb detonation, and one to an engine fire. F-16s returned to Iraq in force in 1998 as part of the Operation Desert Fox bombing campaign and again in the 2003 Operation Iraqi Freedom invasion, flying ground support and SEAD missions.

F-16s were also employed by NATO during Bosnian peacekeeping operations in 1994-95 (one was lost to a SAM, resulting in the evasion and recovery of Captain Scott O'Grady), in the 1999 Operation Allied Force in Yugoslavia (during which one was lost to ground fire), and by the United States in Afghanistan since 2001. Two air-to-air victories were scored by USAF F-16s in Operation Southern Watch,[12] four in Bosnia, and two in Operation Allied Force (one by a Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16 which shot down a Yugoslavian MiG-29 with an AMRAAM and another by a USAF F-16 which shot down a Yugoslavian MiG-29 with two AMRAAMs).

In 2002, a tri-national detachment known as the European Participating Air Forces of 18 Danish, Dutch and Norwegian F-16s in the ground attack role deployed to Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan to support Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.

US F-16s would also participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. One F-16 crashed in June 2003 over Iraq due to fuel starvation.

On June 7, 2006, F-16s carried out two airstrikes which killed Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi, the leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq, using two 500 lb bombs to destroy the al-Qaeda safehouse he was in.

Israeli F-16s were believed to have participated in the 2006 Lebanon War, since the aircraft is known to be the bomber workhorse of the Israel Defense Forces. The exact extent of the F-16's role in that conflict was not known publicly as of late July 2006 but was widely believed to be extensive. An IDF F-16I reportedly crashed on July 19 when one of its tires burst as it took off for Lebanon from an air base in the Negev. The pilots ejected safely due to the plane's full armaments decreasing stability and there were no casualties on the ground.[1]

Since February 2006, Eight Royal Netherlands Air Force, joined by four Royal Norwegian Air Force F-16s are supporting ISAF ground troops in predominantly the southern provinces of Afghanistan. The detachment is know as the 1st Netherlands-Norwegian European Participating Forces Expeditionary Air Wing (1 NLD/NOR EEAW).[2] On August 31, a pilot of the Royal Netherlands Air Force was killed when his airplane crashed in Ghazni province.[3]

[edit] Variants
F-16 models are denoted by sequential block numbers to denote significant upgrades. The blocks cover both single- and two-seat versions. An intricate Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was instituted to gradually upgrade the F-16 and retroactively implement the upgrades in delivered aircraft.

[edit] F-16A/F-16B
The F-16A (single seat) and F-16B (two-seat) were initially equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 Pulse-doppler radar, Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 turbofan, rated at 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN), 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) with afterburner. The USAF bought 674 F-16As and 121 F-16Bs, with delivery completed in March 1985.

Blocks 1
Early blocks (Block 1/5/10) with relatively minor differences between each. Most were later upgraded to the Block 10 configuration in the early 1980s. There were 94 Block 1, 197 Block 5, and 312 Block 10 aircraft produced. Block 1 is the early production model with the nose cone painted black.
Block 5
It was discovered that the black nose cone became an obvious visual identification cue at long range for the Block 1 aircraft, so the color of the nose cone was consequently changed to the low visibility grey for Block 5 aircraft. During the operation of F-16 Block 1, it was discovered that rain water could accumulate in certain spots within the fuselage, so drainage holes were drilled in the forward fuselage and tail fin area for Block 5 aircraft.
Block 10
The Soviet Union significantly reduced the export of titanium during the late 1970s, so manufacturers of the F-16 used aluminum instead. New methods were also used: the corrugated aluminum is bolted to the epoxy surface for Block 10 aircraft, replacing the old method of aluminum honeycomb being glued to the epoxy surface used in earlier aircraft.
Block 15
The first major change in the F-16, the Block 15 aircraft featured larger horizontal stabilizers, the addition of two hardpoints to the chin inlet, improved AN/APG-66 radar, increased capacity of underwing hardpoints. The F-16 gained the Have Quick II secure UHF radio. To counter the additional weight of the new hardpoints, the horizontal stabilizers were enlarged by 30%. Block 15 is the most numerous variant of the F-16, with 983 produced. The last one was delivered in 1996 to Thailand.
Block 15 OCU
From 1987 Block 15 aircraft were delivered to the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU) standard, which featured improved F100-PW-220 turbofans with digital control interface, the ability to fire the AGM-65, AMRAAM, and AGM-119 Penguin missiles, countermeasures and cockpit upgrades, improved computers and data bus. Its maximum takeoff weight increased to 37,500 lb (17,000 kg). 214 aircraft received this upgrade, as well as some Block 10 aircraft, retroactively.
Block 20
150 Block 15 OCUs for the Republic of China (Taiwan) with the addition of most of the F-16 C/D Block 50/52 capability: carriage of AGM-45 Shrike, AGM-84 Harpoon, AGM-88 HARM, and the LANTIRN pod. The computers onboard Block 20 is significantly improved in comparison to that of the earlier versions, with the overall processing speed increased 740 times and the overall memory storage increased 180 times in comparison to that of Block 15 OCU.

[edit] F-16C/F-16D
F-16C (single seat) and F-16D (two-seat).

Block 25
The Block 25 F-16C first flew in June 1984 and entered USAF service in September. The aircraft are fitted with the Westinghouse AN/APG-68 radar, have a precision night attack capability and are fitted with the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220E turbofan, with digital control interface. The Air National Guard and Air Education and Training Command are the sole users of this variant, with 209 models delivered.
Block 30/32
The first aircraft subject to the Alternative Fighter Engine project under which aircraft could be fitted with the traditional Pratt & Whitney engines or for the first time the General Electric F110. Blocks ending in '0' are powered by GE, blocks ending in '2' are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.
The first Block 30 F-16 entered service in 1987. Major differences include the carriage of the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-88 HARM missiles. From Block 30D aircraft were fitted with enlarged inlets for the increased thrust GE engine, Block 32s were not modified in this way. 733 were produced and delivered to six countries. The Block 32H/J aircraft assigned to the USAF Thunderbird flight demonstration squadron were built in 1986 and 1987 and are some of the oldest operational F-16's in the Air Force. The Block 30's were upgraded significantly with the addition of the Embedded Global Positioning satellite (GPS) Inertial Navigation System (EGI) allowing the use of JDAM and other GPS aided munitions (See Block 50 list below). This capability in combination with the Grumman LITENING targeting pod enhanced and extended the usability and lifespan of this block of the F-16C. This modification to the baseline Block 30 is commonly known by Viper Drivers as the F-16C++ (pronounced 'plus plus') version.
Block 40/42 (F-16CG/DG)
Entering service in 1988, the Block 40/42 is the improved all-day/all-weather strike variant with LANTIRN pod, the night capability gives rise to the name "Night Falcons". The block features strengthened and lengthened undercarriage for LANTIRN pods, improved radar, and a GPS receiver. From 2002 the Block 40/42 increases the weapon range available to the aircraft including JDAM, JSOW, WCMD and the (Enhanced) EGBU-27. Also incorporated in this block was the addition of ANVIS compatible lighting systems. The TCTO (Time Compliance Technical Order) that added the NVIS compatible systems was completed in 2004. 615 aircraft were delivered to 5 countries.
Block 50/52 (F-16CJ/DJ)
Block 50/52 was first delivered in late 1991; the aircraft are equipped with improved GPS/INS. The aircraft can carry a further batch of advanced missiles; the AGM-88 HARM missile, JDAM, JSOW and WCMD. Block 50 aircraft are powered by the F110-GE-129 while the Block 52 jets use the F100-PW-229.

Polish Air Force F-16C Block 52+
Polish Air Force F-16D Block 52+Block 50/52 Plus (F-16U)
Ordered by Polish Air Force. These aircraft are fitted with the latest avionics (including the ALE-50 Towed Decoy System) and provisions for Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFTs). On 9 November, 2006, it was unveiled that the Polish F-16s will be named Jastrzab (Hawk). Limited operational readiness will be achieved in 2008 and last F16 should be delivered by 2012. The Hellenic Air Force ordered this version with the CFTs. All two-seat "Plus" airframes include the enlarged Avionics Dorsal Spine which adds 30 cubic feet (850 L) to the airframe for more avionics with only small increases in weight and drag. This version is sometimes called F-16U and is the foundation of F-16E/F Block 60.[citation needed] The Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) also ordered two-seat versions of the Block 52+. Singapore's most recent order consists of an aircraft model rumored to be the exact same configuration as the venerable F-16I, but re-designated to avoid sensitivity. The latest D+ models ordered by the RSAF can be noted to have the exact same antennas, sensor locations, cockpit configurations as that of the F-16I. These planes are also fitted with DASH-3 Helmet-mouted sighting system, 600-Gallon tanks, CFTs, AMRAAM, HARM and laser-guided weapons, fully-configured for long-range strike. The Pakistan Air Force ordered 18 Block 52 Plus F-16s with an option for 18 more as part of a $5.1 arms package. Pakistani F-16s will be equipped with AIM-120C5 AMRAAM, AIM-9M-8/9, JDAM, Harpoon Block II, Joint-Helmet Mounted Cueing System, CFTs and possibly IRIS-T.

IAF F-16I SufaF-16I
Block 50/52 Plus for Israeli Defense Force - Air Force, with approximately 50% Israeli avionics replacing that of American firms (Such as Israeli Aerial Towed Decoy replacing the ALE-50). The addition of Israeli-built autonomous aerial combat maneuvering instrumentation systems enables the training exercises to be conducted without the dependence on the ground instrumentation systems, and the helmet-mounted sight is also standard equipment. The F-16I also has the IAI-built removable conformal fuel tanks added. The F-16I is called Sufa (Storm) by the IDF/AF. The aircraft use the F100-PW-229 which offers commonality with the IDF/AF's F-15Is. Israel issued a requirement in September 1997 and selected the F-16 in preference to the F-15 in July 1999. An initial "Peace Marble V" contract was signed on 14 January 2000 with a follow on contract signed on 19 December 2001 for a total of 102. The first flight of the F-16I occurred on 23 December 2003, followed by the first delivery to the IDF/AF on 19 February 2004.[13]
F-16 CCIP
The Common Configuration Implementation Program (CCIP) seeks to standardize all Block 40/42/50/52 F-16s to 50/52 configuration for simplified training and maintenance. The $2 billion program was initiated in September 2001. In addition, the CCIP will incorporate a Link-16 datalink capability with the MIDS for data-sharing with allied aircraft, and the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) for helmet-slaved aiming of the AIM-9X.[14] All of Turkish Air Force Block 40/50 F16s will also have CCIP modernization under The Peace Onyx III program. While Lockheed Martin is the principal contractor, the kits will be installed by TUSAS Aerospace Industries (TAI). On July 2, 2007, the first four Turkish F-16s arrived to TAI facilities in Ankara, Turkey for the upgrade. [15]The program is expected to be completed by 2011.

[edit] F-16E and F-16F
F-16E (single seat) and F-16F (two-seat).

United Arab Emirates F-16 Block 60 taking off after taxiing out of the Lockheed Martin plant in Fort Worth, TX (NAS Fort Worth JRB)Block 60
Based on the F-16C/D, it features conformal fuel tanks and improved radar and avionics; it has only been sold to the United Arab Emirates. The General Electric F110-132 is a development of the -129 model and is rated at 32,500 lbf (144 kN). A major difference from previous Blocks is the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar. Block 60 allows the carriage of all Block 50/52 aircraft-compatible weaponry as well as ASRAAM and the AGM-84E Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM). The CFTs provide an additional 450 US gallons (2,045 liters) of fuel allowing increased range or time on station. This has the added benefit of freeing up hardpoints for weapons, i.e. hardpoints that would have been occupied by underwing fuel tanks. The MIL-STD-1553 data bus is replaced by MIL-STD-1773 fiber optic data bus which offers 1000 times increase in data handling capability. Theoretically, the aircraft could be purchased by the United States Air Force, but in practice the USAF has shown little interest in acquiring new F-16s given that it has an extensive "boneyard" fleet of the planes at the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center and is planning to take delivery of the new F-35 Lightning II by the end of the decade.
A single-seat version of the General Dynamics F-16XL was to be designated F-16E, with the twin-seat variant designated F-16F. This was sidelined by the Air Force's selection of the F-15E Strike Eagle in the 1980s Enhanced Tactical Fighter flyoff.

[edit] Other variants
F-16/79
Modified export-version F-16A designed for use with the outdated J79 turbojet engine in answer to President Jimmy Carter's directive to curtail arms proliferation by selling only reduced capability weapons. However, numerous exceptions were made, and with the later relaxation of the policy under President Carter and cancellation under President Ronald Reagan, no copies were ultimately sold. Pakistan was offered this plane but rejected the offer.
F/A-16
Modified F-16 version dedicated for close air support version. This F-16 carried the 30 mm GAU-13/A cannon that is a four-barrel derivative of the seven-barrel GAU-8/A cannon used on the A-10. Twenty-four F-16A/Bs received this modification. The design was not deemed successful and the plan was dropped.[4]
F-16/101
Modified F-16A designed for use with the General Electric F101 turbofan engine from the B-1A program. GE attempted to rework the engine for fighter usage, but it was never adopted for the F-16. Data from the F-16/101 assisted in the development of the F110 turbofan.
F-16ADF
Upgraded Block 15 for United States Air National Guard's fighter interception mission (hence the name Air Defense Fighter). Begun in 1989, 270 airframes were upgraded. Avionics were upgraded (including the addition of an IFF interrogator with "bird slicing" IFF antennas), and a spotlight fitted forward and below the cockpit, for night time identification. This was the only US version equipped with the AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile. Beginning in 1994 these aircraft began to be replaced by newer F-16C variants. By 2005 only the North Dakota ANG was flying this variant.
F-16AM
Upgraded single-seat fighter version of the F-16A. The F-16AM is in use with the Belgian Air Force, Portuguese Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Pakistan Air Force.
F-16A(R)
A few F-16As of the Royal Netherlands Air Force were equipped with tactical reconnaissance pods. The aircraft were given the designation F-16A(R).
F-16BM
Upgraded two-seat training version of the F-16B. The F-16BM is in use with the Belgian Air Force, Portuguese Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Pakistan Air Force.
F-2A/B(FS-X)
Japanese F-16 derivative produced by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, with cooperation from Lockheed Martin. It is larger and utilizes mainly Japanese avionics.
F-16XL
A cranked-arrow delta-wing version used by NASA for aeronautical research, once conceived of as a possible competitor for the Enhanced Tactical Fighter program, which was later won by the F-15E Strike Eagle. If the F-16XL had gone into production, it would have been designated F-16E/F (single/twin seat).[16] Two examples were built, one single-seat and one two-seat version.
RF-16C/F-16R
Reconnaissance version that carries the ATARS package.
F-16 MLU
(Mid Life Update) An update of the F-16 A/B to the Block 50 standard for the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Belgian Air Force, the Pakistan Air Force, the Royal Danish Air Force, the Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Portuguese Air Force. The aircraft are designated F-16AM and F-16BM respectively.

TOPGUN F-16 and A-4 aircraft in formation.F-16N
22 Block 30 aircraft delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as Adversary assets. These aircraft were delivered in 1987-1988. VF-126 and the Navy Fighter Weapons School (NFWS) (or TOPGUN) operated them at NAS Miramar. East coast squadrons were VF-43 at NAS Oceana and VF-45 at NAS Key West. Each squadron had one TF-16N and 5 F-16N, with the exception of TOPGUN which had 7. Due to the high stress of constant combat training, the wings of these aircraft began to crack and the Navy announced their retirement in 1994 and sent them to AMARC by 1995. As adversary aircraft they were notable for their colorful appearance. Most Navy F-16N aircraft were painted in a three-tone blue and gray "ghost" scheme. TOPGUN had some of the more colorful ones: a three-color desert scheme, a light blue one and a green splinter camo version with Marine markings. VF-126 also had a unique blue example. In 2002 the Navy began to receive 14 F-16A and B models from AMARC that were originally intended for Pakistan before being embargoed. These were operated by NSAWC N7 (TOPGUN) for adversary training and painted in exotic schemes.
TF-16N
Four two-seaters delivered to the U.S. Navy for use in adversary training. Each of the three Navy adversary squadrons equipped with the F-16 and TOPGUN had one example of this version.
KF-16
140 aircraft built by Korean Aerospace Industries (KAI) under license from Lockheed Martin in the 1990s. There are two variants of KF-16; the first 12 KF-16s were delivered to Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) in 1994, and are based on F-16C/D Block 32. The second variants, introduced in 1994,[17] are advanced derivatives of F-16C/D Block 52. Almost 2,500 parts are changed from the original F-16C/D[17], which resulted in the naming of the aircraft to KF-16 and not F-16K. All KF-16 are capable of launching Harpoon anti-ship missiles.

The F-16 VISTAF-16 VISTA / MATV / NF-16D
Lockheed-Martin's experimental F-16 with thrust vector control. The VISTA program is considered successful, but the thrust vector control (TVC) never made it into fighter versions.
AFTI/F-16

Salman Khan

2007-08-07T01:11:00.000-07:00

Salman Khan

Born December 27, 1965 (1965-12-27) (age 41)
Indore, Madhya Pradesh,
India
Occupation Actor
Years active 1988 - present
Official site www.salmankhan.net
Salman Khan (Hindi: सलमान ख़ान)(pronunciation: /səlmɑːn xɑːn/), born Abdul Rashid Salim Salman Khan on December 27, 1965 is a popular Indian film actor who appears in Bollywood movies. Taking part in some of Bollywood's biggest hits, along with his critically acclaimed performances, today he is considered to be one of the biggest superstars and leading actors in the industry.

[edit] Biography

[edit] Career
Salman made his acting debut in the 1988 film Biwi Ho To Aisi where he played a supporting role. His first leading role in a Bollywood movie was in Sooraj R. Barjatya's romantic film Maine Pyar Kiya (1989). The film went on to become one of India's highest grossing films[1]. It also won him a Filmfare Best Debut Award, and a nomination for Filmfare Best Actor Award.

1990 was a moderately good year for him with one film release, which did not do well at the box-office. However, 1991 was a good year for him, taking part in hit films like Sanam Bewafa and Saajan.

His second venture with director Sooraj Barjatya, Hum Aapke Hain Koun (1994), remains one of Indian cinema's highest grossing films ever.[1][2].

Some of his biggest box office hits include Karan Arjun (1995), Judwaa (1997), Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya (1998), Hum Saath-Saath Hain: We Stand United (1999), Biwi No.1 (1999), Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999), Tere Naam (2003), Mujhse Shaadi Karogi (2004) and No Entry (2005). [2]

Khan has starred in the highest earning films of 1989, 1991, 1994, 1999, and 2005.[3]

He is scheduled to appear in his first Hollywood movie, Marigold: An Adventure in India, which will open in the U.S. in August 2007.

[edit] Personal life
Salman is the eldest son of celebrated screenwriter Salim Khan and his wife Salma Khan. His stepmother is Helen (actress), a famous yesteryear Bollywood dancer and actress. He has two brothers, Arbaaz Khan and Sohail Khan, and two sisters, Alvira and Arpita. Alvira is married to actor/director Atul Agnihotri.

The actor is known to be involved in several charities and many swear by his generosity.[4]

Despite tumultuous relationships with ex-girlfriends Aishwarya Rai, Somy Ali and Sangeeta Bijlani, he is regarded as Bollywood's most eligible bachelor. Currently he is said to be dating Katrina Kaif.

[edit] Controversies

[edit] Legal troubles
September 28, 2002. Salman was arrested for rash and negligent driving. He was under the influence of alcohol and his car veered onto a sidewalk outside a bakery in Mumbai. One person who was sleeping on the sidewalk died and three others were injured.[3] Charges of culpable homicide were laid against him, but later dropped.[4] However, some legal action in this case appears to be on-going.[5]
February 17, 2006. Salman was sentenced to one year in prison[6] for hunting an endangered species, the Chinkara. The sentence was stayed by a higher court during appeal.
April 10, 2006. Salman was handed a five year jail term for hunting the endangered Chinkara. He was remanded to Jodhpur jail, and remained there until April 13, when he was granted bail.[7]

[edit] Relationship troubles
His turbulent relationship with Aishwarya Rai filled gossip columns. Her parents lodged a complaint against him[8] and he was thrown off a movie set on which Ms. Rai was filming.[9]
In 2005, news outlets released what was said to be an illicit copy of a mobile phone call recorded in 2001 by the Mumbai police. It appeared to be a call in which he threatened his ex-girlfriend, Aishwarya Rai, in an effort to force her to appear at social events held by Mumbai crime figures. The call featured boasts of connections to organized crime and derogatory comments about other actors. The alleged tape was tested in the Government's Forensic lab in Chandigarh, which concluded that it was a fake.[10][11]

[edit] Awards and nominations

[edit] Filmfare Awards
Winner

1989 - Best Debut for Maine Pyar Kiya
1998 - Best Supporting Actor for Kuch Kuch Hota Hai
Nominated

1990 - Best Actor for Maine Pyar Kiya
1995 - Best Actor for Karan Arjun
1996 - Best Supporting Actor for Jeet
1998 - Best Actor for Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya
1999 - Best Actor for Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam
1999 - Best Comedian for Biwi No.1
2003 - Best Actor for Tere Naam
2003 - Best Supporting Actor for Baghban
2005 - Best Comedian for No Entry

[edit] Star Screen Awards
2004 - Nominated Best Actor for Tere Naam
2005 - Nominated Best Actor for Garv: Pride and Honour

[edit] Zee Cine Awards
2004 - Nominated Best Actor for Tere Naam
2005 - Nominated Best Actor for Mujhse Shaadi Karogi

[edit] Bollywood Movie Awards
2002 - Winner Bollywood Movie Award - Most Sensational Actor, Chori Chori Chupke Chupke

[edit] Filmography
Year Title Role Other notes
1988 Biwi Ho To Aisi Vicky Bhandari
1989 Maine Pyar Kiya Prem Choudhary Dubbed into Telugu
1990 Baaghi: A Rebel for Love Saajan Sood
1991 Patthar Ke Phool Inspector Suraj
1991 Sanam Bewafa Salman Khan
1991 Kurbaan Akash Singh
1991 Saajan Akash Varma
1991 Love Prithvi
1992 Suryavanshi Vicky/Suryavanshi Vikram Singh
1992 Ek Ladka Ek Ladki Raja
1992 Nishchaiy Rohan Yadav/Vasudev Gujral
1993 Jaagruti Jugnu
1993 Dil Tera Aashiq Vijay
1993 Chandra Mukhi Raja Rai
1994 Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! Prem Dubbed into Telugu
1994 Andaz Apna Apna Prem Bhopali
1994 Chaand Kaa Tukdaa Shyam Malhotra
1994 Sangdil Sanam Kishan
1995 Karan Arjun Karan Singh/Ajay
1995 Veergati Ajay
1996 Yeh Majhdhaar Gopal
1996 Khamoshi: The Musical Raj
1996 Jeet Raju
1996 Dushman Duniya Ka Special Appearance
1997 Judwaa Raja/Prem Malhotra
1997 Auzaar Suraj Prakash
1997 Deewana Mastana Prem Kumar Special Appearance
1997 Dus Captain Jeet Sharma Incomplete role
1998 Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya Suraj Khanna
1998 Jab Pyaar Kisise Hota Hai Suraj Dhanrajgir
1998 Sar Utha Ke Jiyo Special Appearance
1998 Bandhan Raju
1998 Kuch Kuch Hota Hai Aman Mehra Special Appearance, Winner, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award
1999 Sirf Tum Prem Special Appearance
1999 Hum Saath-Saath Hain: We Stand United Prem
1999 Jaanam Samjha Karo Rahul
1999 Biwi No.1 Prem
1999 Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam Sameer Rafillini
1999 Hello Brother Hero
2000 Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge Raja Oberoi
2000 Chal Mere Bhai Prem Oberoi
2000 Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega Raj/Romi
2000 Dhaai Akshar Prem Ke Friendly Appearance
2000 Kahin Pyaar Na Ho Jaaye Prem Kapoor
2001 Chori Chori Chupke Chupke Raj Malhotra
2002 Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge Veer Singh Thakur/Ali
2002 Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam Suraj
2002 Yeh Hai Jalwa Raj 'Raju' Saxena/Raj Mittal
2003 Love at Times Square Special Appearance (Song)
2003 Stumped Special Appearance (Song)
2003 Tere Naam Radhe Mohan
2003 Baghban Alok Raj Special Appearance
2004 Garv: Pride and Honour Arjun Ranavat
2004 Mujhse Shaadi Karogi Sameer Malhotra
2004 Phir Milenge Rohit Manchanda
2004 Dil Ne Jise Apna Kahaa Rishabh
2005 Lucky: No Time for Love Aditya
2005 Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya? Dr. Samir Malhotra
2005 No Entry Prem
2005 Kyun Ki Anand
2006 Shaadi Karke Phas Gaya Yaar Ayaan
2006 Saawan: The Love Season
2006 Jaan-E-Mann Suhaan
2006 Baabul Avinash Kapoor Dubbed into Telugu
2007 Salaam-e-Ishq: A Tribute To Love Rahul
2007 Partner Prem Released
2007 Marigold: An Adventure in India Prem Releasing August 11th
2007 God Tussi Great Ho Filming
2007 Saawariya Filming
2007 London Dreams Pre-Production
2007 Sahib Biwi Aur Ghulam Sahib Announced
2007 Mera Bharat Mahaan Announced
2007 Main Yuvraj Announced
2007 Amar Akbar Anthony Announced
2007 Hello Chetan Bhagat (Special Appearance) Announced
2007 Bajirao Mastani Bajirao Announced
2008 Wanted (2008 Hindi film) In Production

[edit] References
^ "Hum Aapke Hain Koun". Rajshri Productions (2006). Retrieved on 2006-10-28.
^ "All Time Grossers Inflation Adjusted". BoxOfficeIndia.Com (October 14, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-10-28.
^ "Salman Khan's jeep runs over pavement dwellers, one dead; actor surrenders".
^ "Bollywood homicide charge dropped". BBC News South Asia (September 3, 2003). Retrieved on 2006-10-16.
^ "Ongoing legal cases " (November 12, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-08-23.
^ "Salman Khan sentenced to one-year imprisonment in poaching case". Asian News International (ANI) via Yahoo! News India (February 17, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-06-28.
^ "Salman granted bail on poaching case". sify.com (13 April 2006). Retrieved on 2006-06-28.
^ "Salman in news for the wrong reasons".
^ "Salman harassing me, says Aishwarya".
^ "Police records Salman Khan's voice, Ash keeps mum" (July 18, 2005).
^ "Salman cleared in Aishwarya tape case" (September 16, 2005). Retrieved on 2006-08-23.

Aishwarya Rai

2007-08-07T01:08:00.000-07:00

Aishwarya Rai

Born November 1, 1973 (1973-11-01) (age 33)
Mangalore, Karnataka, India
Spouse(s) Abhishek Bacchan (2007 - present)
Aishwarya Rai Bachchan (Tulu-Kannada: ಐಶ್ವರ್ಯ ರೈ, Devanāgarī: ऐश्वर्या राय, IPA: [æʃvərjɑː rɑːj]) (born November 1, 1973), is an award winning Indian actress. Rai, who won the Miss World title in 1994, made her film debut with Mani Ratnam's Iruvar (1997) and had her first critically and commercially success with Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999), with whom she repeated this success with Devdas (2002). Since then, she has acted in nearly fourty Hindi, Tamil, Bengali and English films. Today, she is considered to be one of the most popular actresses in India and the best known Indian actress in the world. Rai is married to Indian actor Abhishek Bachchan and is daughter-in-law to Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan.

Contents [hide]
1 Biography
2 Career
3 Awards and Nominations
4 Filmography
5 References
6 See also
7 External links

[edit] Biography
Aishwarya Rai was born in Mangalore, in the South Indian state of Karnataka, to Krishnaraj Rai, a marine engineer, and Vrinda Rai, a writer on 1 November 1973. Her ancestors are from the Bunt community of Mangalore. Her family later relocated to Mumbai (Bombay). Rai has one elder brother, Aditya Rai who is a film producer.

Rai attended the Arya Vidya Mandir at Santacruz, Mumbai, then entered Jai Hind College, Churchgate, Mumbai for one year and then moved to Ruparel College, Matunga, Mumbai to finish her HSC. She was an A student and was on track to become an architect. Her mother tongue is Tulu. She also speaks Hindi, English, Kannada, Marathi and Tamil.

Rai began modeling on the side while pursuing for studies in Architecture, which did not materialise. In the 1994 Miss India contest, she was controversially placed second behind Sushmita Sen, and went on to win the Miss World title that same year and the Miss Photogenic award. After the one year reign as Miss World in London, she then worked as a professional model, in advertising and Indian fashion magazines and later got into Indian film industry.

After much speculation concerning their relationship, her engagement to Abhishek Bachchan was announced on January 14, 2007. [1] The event was heavily covered by the media. They married on April 20, 2007 in a private ceremony held at the Bachchans' bungalow Prateeksha [2]

[edit] Career
Aishwarya debuted in Mani Ratnam's Tamil language film, Iruvar (1997) with Mohanlal [3]. She was introduced to Bollywood in the film, Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya; the film did not do well at the box office. However, her third project, a Tamil-language film, Jeans (1998) by S. Shankar was a critical and commercial success for which she was awarded the Filmfare Best Actress Award South. Aishwarya then appeared in many Bollywood films; a few successful films of her career include Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999) and Taal (1999) for which her performance was lauded. [4] She was awarded the Filmfare Best Actress Award for her role in the former. In 2000 she had a supporting role in the hit film Mohabbatein and also in another hit film Josh.

In 2002, Rai appeared with superstars Shah Rukh Khan and Madhuri Dixit in the lavishly produced Devdas, which was a major box-office success [5] and earned her the Filmfare Best Actress Award. [6] The film attracted overseas attention as well, receiving a special screening at the Cannes Film Festival. [7] It was during this time that she garnered the attention of the West as an Indian actress and went on to appear in a few Hollywood projects.

As her name gained popularity in the West, she was chosen by Time magazine in 2004 as one of the World's "100 Most Influential People" and in 2003, appeared on the cover of Time magazine. She was the subject of a 60 Minutes profile on January 2. A month later she appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman. She was also featured on Oprah's "Women Across the Globe" segment. In 2003, she acted in the critically acclaimed and commercial success Bengali film, Chokher Bali, an adaptation of one of Rabindranath Tagore's novels by the same name.

Rai has been a regular at the Cannes Film Festival since 2002, and was a member of the Jury at Cannes in the year 2003. In October 2004, a wax figure of Rai became on display in London's Madame Tussaud's wax museum [8]. The same month, her first foreign film was released: Bride and Prejudice [9]. The film was an Indian version of Jane Austen's classic novel Pride and Prejudice. The film did well commercially in the U.K but not in India. Her next overseas venture, The Mistress of Spices, was critically acclaimed though not commercially successful. She then appeared at the closing ceremony of the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, as part of a performance showcasing Indian culture, on behalf of the 2010 Commonwealth Games, to be held in New Delhi.

In between her overseas acting stints, she appeared in the Indian film Bunty Aur Babli in a hugely popular seven minute dance sequence for the song "Kajra Re". The dance sequence paired Rai with Abhishek Bachchan who, two years later (April 2007), became her husband.

At the end of the year 2006, she had two releases: Umrao Jaan and Dhoom 2. Umrao Jaan did poorly in India; however, her role in Dhoom 2, a sequel to the 2004 hit movie Dhoom brought her great attention. It was a hit commercially too. [10] Both of these films also co-starred Rai's soon-to-be husband, Abhishek Bachchan.

2007 saw the release of Mani Ratnam's Guru which premiered in Toronto. The film, based on the life of Indian businessman Dhirubhai Ambani, was critically acclaimed and a big box office hit[11] . Her most recent film, Provoked, based on the book "Circle of Light" where she portrays a real life character, was released on 6 April, 2007 in India and the UK. The film did well commercially in the UK. It was critically acclaimed all over the world. At the end of April 2007 her first American film, The Last Legion, was released in Russia and the Netherlands. The film is expected to open in North American theaters in August 2007.

[edit] Awards and Nominations
Main article: List of Aishwarya Rai's awards and nominations

[edit] Filmography
Year Film Co-Stars Language Role
1997 IRUVAR Mohanlal, Prakash Raj, Tabu Tamil Pushpa/Kalpana
1997 Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya Bobby Deol Hindi Ashi Kapoor
1998 Jeans Prashanth Tamil Madhumitha/Vaishnavi
1999 Aa Ab Laut Chalen Akshaye Khanna, Rajesh Khanna Hindi Pooja
1999 Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam Salman Khan, Ajay Devgan Hindi Nandini
1999 Ravoyi Chandamama Akkineni Nagarjuna, Jagapati Babu Telugu special appearance (song sequence).
1999 Taal Anil Kapoor, Akshaye Khanna Hindi Mansi
2000 Dhaai Akshar Prem Ke Abhishek Bachchan Hindi Sahiba Gareval
2000 Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai Anil Kapoor Hindi Preeti Virat
2000 Josh Shahrukh Khan, Chandrachur Singh Hindi Shirley
2000 Kandukondain Kandukondain Ajith Kumar, Mammooty, Abbas, Tabu Tamil Meenakshi Bala
2000 Mela Hindi Champakali (Special Appearance)
2000 Mohabbatein Amitabh Bachchan, Shahrukh Khan Hindi Megha (Cameo)
2000 Sanam Tere Hain Hum Hindi Item number
2001 Albela Govinda, Namrata Shirodkar Hindi Sonia
2002 23rd March 1931: Shaheed Hindi Cameo
2002 Devdas Shahrukh Khan, Madhuri Dixit Hindi Parvati
2002 Hum Kisi Se Kum Nahin Amitabh Bachchan, Ajay Devgan, Sanjay Dutt Hindi Komal Rastogi
2002 Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam Hindi Cameo
2002 Shakti: The Power Hindi Item number
2003 Chokher Bali Prasenjit Chatterjee, Raima Sen Bengali Binodhini
2003 Dil Ka Rishta Arjun Rampal, Isha Koppikar Hindi Tia Sharma
2003 Kuch Naa Kaho Abhishek Bachchan Hindi Namrata Shrivastav
2004 Bride & Prejudice Martin Henderson English Lalita Bakshi
2004 Khakee Amitabh Bachchan, Akshay Kumar Hindi Mahalakshmi
2004 Kyun...! Ho Gaya Na Amitabh Bachchan, Vivek Oberoi Hindi Diya Malhotra
2004 Raincoat Ajay Devgan Hindi Neerja
2005 Bunty Aur Babli Hindi Item number
2005 Shabd Sanjay Dutt, Zayed Khan Hindi Antara Vashist
2006 Mistress of Spices Dylan McDermott English Tilo
2006 Umrao Jaan Shabana Azmi, Abhishek Bachchan Hindi Umrao Jaan
2006 Dhoom 2 Hrithik Roshan, Abhishek Bachchan, Bipasha Basu, Uday Chopra Hindi Sunehri
2007 Guru Abhishek Bachchan, Mithun Chakraborty Hindi Sujatha
2007 Provoked Naveen Andrews, Robbie Coltrane, Nandita Das English Kiranjit Alluwalia
2007 Jodhaa Akbar Hrithik Roshan Hindi Jodhaa Bai
2007 Sarkar 2 Amitabh Bachchan, Abhishek Bachchan Hindi Neha
2007 The Heart of India Hindi Mumtaz Mahal
2007 The Last Legion Colin Firth, Ben Kingsley English Mira
2008 Untitled Tarun Mansukhani Project[12] Abhishek Bachchan Hindi

[edit] References
^ ibnlive.com. Its official! Abhishek and Aishwarya are engaged. Retrieved on 29 June, 2007.
^ news.bbc.co.uk. Ash weds Abhishek. Retrieved on 29 June, 2007.
^ http://imdb.com/title/tt0119385/
^ boxofficeindia.com. Box office report of 1999. Retrieved on 29 June, 2007.
^ boxofficeindia.com. Box office report of 2002. Retrieved on 29 June, 2007.
^ filmfareawards.indiatimes.com. Ash wins second Best Actress award at the Filmfare. Retrieved on 29 June, 2007.
^ time.com. Devdas at the Cannes Film Festival. Retrieved on 29 June, 2007.
^ [1]
^ http://imdb.com/title/tt0361411/
^ [2]
^ http://www.ibosnetwork.com/asp/curyeartotals.asp
^ indiafm.com. Ash with Abhishek in Karan's next. Retrieved on 14 January, 2007.

Abhishek Bachchan

2007-08-07T01:04:00.000-07:00

Abhishek Bachchan

Birth name Abhishek Bachchan
Born February 5, 1976 (1976-02-05) (age 31)
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Years active 2000-Present
Spouse(s) Aishwarya Rai (April 20, 2007 - Present)
Parents Amitabh Bachchan
Jaya Bhaduri
Abhishek Bachchan (Hindi: अभिषेक बच्चन, born 5 February 1976[2][3] in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India) is an award-winning Indian actor. He is the son of Indian actors Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan. His wife is former Miss World turned actress Aishwarya Rai.

Contents [hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Awards and nominations
5 Filmography
5.1 Films
5.2 Playback singing
6 Footnotes
7 External links

[edit] Early life
Abhishek Bachchan is the son of Bollywood icon Amitabh Bachchan and actress turned politician Jaya Bhaduri. His grandfather, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, was a well-known poet of Urdu and Hindi literature. The original last name of Abhishek's parental family is Srivastav, Bachchan being the pen name used by his grandfather. However, when his father Amitabh entered films, he did so under his father's pen name. He is of Punjabi Sikh heritage from his grandmother Teji's side, while also of Bengali Kulin Brahmin descent from his mother Jaya Bhaduri's side.

Abhishek attended Jamnabai Narsee School, Bombay Scottish School in Mumbai, Modern School in Vasant Vihar, New Delhi and Aiglon College in Switzerland. He then went to the United States to complete his education at Boston University but then left the course mid-way to pursue his acting career when his father Amitabh Bachchan's career was facing trouble.

[edit] Career
Though Abhishek began his career in 2000, it was not until 2004 that he grew into prominence.

He made his film debut in J.P.Dutta's moderately successful Refugee along with Kareena Kapoor in 2000.[4] In a span of four years, Bachchan went on to do many more movies, without any major box-office successes.

2004 was a good year for him. His performance in Mani Ratnam's Yuva, proved his mettle as an actor.[5] He portrayed the character of Lallan which earned him the Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award[6] and many wins at major film award functions[7][8]. The same year, he starred in Dhoom which was his first major hit.[9] In 2005, he shot to fame with four consecutive hits: Bunty Aur Babli, Sarkar, Dus and Bluffmaster.[10] He won his second Filmfare Award in the Best Supporting Actor category for Sarkar.[11] Bachchan also received his first Filmfare nomination in the Best Actor category for Bunty Aur Babli.[12]

His first 2006 release, the multi-starrer Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006) was one of the highest grossing films of the year.[13] He was also a part of Mani Ratnam's stage show, Netru, Indru, Naalai alongside many other co-stars. His second release Umrao Jaan failed to do well at the box office. His third release Dhoom 2, a sequel to his first hit Dhoom did very well at the box office.[14]

His first release in 2007 was Guru. He has received much acclaim for his performance and the film emerged as his first solo hit.[15] He recently made a brief appearance in the multi-starrer Shootout at Lokhandwala which released in May 2007; the film was successful.[16] His next release Jhoom Barabar Jhoom released in June 2007. The film under-performed in India[17] but did better overseas especially in the U.K.[18] However while the film received mixed reviews. Abhishek received good notices for his performance in the film.[19][20][21][22][23]

In 2008 Abhishek Bachchan will join Amitabh Bachchan, Aishwarya Bachchan, and other Indian film actors on the world-wide Unforgettable Tour. The tour will reportedly cover 18 countries and 6 continents.

[edit] Personal life
Abhishek Bachchan was earlier engaged to Karisma Kapoor. The couple announced their engagement on Amitabh Bachchan's 60th birthday celebration in October 2002.[24] The engagement was called off in January 2003.[25]

After much speculation concerning their relationship, his engagement to Aishwarya Rai was announced on January 14, 2007.[26] The announcement was later confirmed by Amitabh Bachchan.[27]

Bachchan married Aishwarya Rai on April 20, 2007 according to traditional Hindu rites of the South Indian Bunt community, to which his wife belongs. Token North Indian and Bengali ceremonies were also performed. The wedding took place in a private ceremony at the Bachchan residence Prateeksha in Juhu, Mumbai. Though the wedding was a private affair intended for the Bachchan and Rai family and friends, the involvement of the media made it a national extravaganza.[28]

[edit] Awards and nominations
Main article: List of Abhishek Bachchan's awards and nominations

[edit] Filmography

[edit] Films
Year Film Role Other Notes
2000 Refugee Refugee Nominated, Filmfare Best Debut Award
2000 Dhai Akshar Prem Ke Karan Khanna
2000 Tera Jadoo Chal Gaya Kabir Srivastav
2001 Bas Itna Sa Khwaab Hai Suraj Shrivastav
2001 Shararat Rahul Khanna
2002 Haan Maine Bhi Pyaar Kiya Shiv Kapoor
2002 Desh Suprabha's son
2002 Om Jai Jagadish Jagadish Batra
2003 Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon Prem Kumar Nominated, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award
2003 Mumbai Se Aaya Mera Dost Kanji
2003 Kuch Naa Kaho Raj
2003 LOC Kargil Lt. Vikram Batra
2003 Zameen ACP Jai
2004 Rakht: What If You Can See the Future Manav Guest Appearance (item number)
2004 Run Siddharth
2004 Phir Milenge Tarun Anand
2004 Yuva Lallan Winner, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award
Nominated, Filmfare Best Villain Award
2004 Dhoom ACP Jai Dixit
2004 Naach Abhinav
2004 Hum Tum Sameer Guest appearance
2005 Bunty Aur Babli Rakesh/Bunty Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
2005 Sarkar Shankar Nagare Winner, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award
2005 Dus Shashank Dheer
2005 Antar Mahal Vrij Bhushan
2005 Salaam Namaste Dr. Vijay Kumar/Narrator Special appearance
2005 Ek Ajnabee Anamika's (Adult) Bodyguard Special appearance
2005 Home Delivery: Aapko... Ghar Tak Customer at pizzeria Special appearance
2005 Neal n' Nikki Guy in bar Special appearance
2005 Bluffmaster Roy
2006 Alag Special appearance in song Sabse Alag
2006 Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna Rishi Talwar Winner, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award
2006 Lage Raho Munna Bhai Sunny Special appearance
2006 Umrao Jaan Nawab Sultan
2006 Dhoom 2 ACP Jai Dixit
2007 Guru Gurukant Desai
2007 Shootout at Lokhandwala Abhishek Mahatre Special appearance
2007 Jhoom Barabar Jhoom Rikki Thukral
2007 Drona Filming[29]
2007 Laaga Chunari Mein Daag Post-production[30]
2007 Sarkar Raj Shankar Nagare Filming[31]
2007 Untitled Tarun Mansukhani Project Announced[32]
2007 Pa Announced[33]

[edit] Playback singing
Year Title Song Notes
2004 Dhoom Dilbara With Abhijeet
2005 Bluffmaster Right Here Right Now With Sunidhi Chauhan

Shahrukh Khan

2007-08-07T00:58:00.000-07:00

Shahrukh Khan
शाहरुख़ ख़ान
شاہ رخ خان

Born November 2, 1965 (1965-11-02) (age 41)
New Delhi, India
Other name(s) Shah Rukh Khan
Years active 1988-Present
Spouse(s) Gauri Khan
Shahrukh Khan (born November 2, 1965) (Devanagari: शाहरुख़ ख़ान, Naskh: شاہ رخ خان) is a prominent Bollywood actor, producer, and was recently the host of the game show, Kaun Banega Crorepati. Balancing significant commercial success with remarkable critically acclaimed performances, Khan has established himself as one of the most prominent leading actors of Bollywood.

Biography
Shahrukh Khan was born to a Muslim family but was raised by Hindus for most of his life. [1] His father Taj Mohammed Khan, who was from the famous Pashtun Niazi tribe, was a freedom activist of Hindkowan background[citation needed], and Lateef Fatima, [2] who was the adopted daughter of Major General Shah Nawaz Khan of the Janjua Rajput clan [3], who served as a General in the Indian National Army of Subash Chandra Bose [4].

Khan's father came to Delhi from the Kissa Kahani Bazaar in Peshawar now in Pakistan, before the Partition of India [5], while his mother's family came from Rawalpindi, also in Pakistan [6]. Khan has a sister named Shehnaz and is lovingly known as Lalarukh. [7][8] Khan attended St. Columba's School where he was accomplished in sports, drama and academics. He won the Sword of Honour, an annual award bequeathed to the student who embodies most the spirit of the school.[citation needed] He later attended the Hansraj College (1985-1988) to earn an Honors degree in Economics.[citation needed] After this, he studied for a Masters Degree in Mass Communications at Jamia Millia Islamia University.[citation needed].

After the death of his parents, Khan moved from New Delhi to Mumbai in 1991. In 1991, he married Gauri Khan in a Hindu wedding ceremony[9]. They have two children, son Aryan (b. 1997) and daughter Suhana (b. 2000).

Nasreen Munni Kabir, the noted British filmmaker, produced a two-part documentary on Khan, titled The Inner and Outer World of Shah Rukh Khan (2005). Featuring his 2004 Temptations concert tour, the film contrasted Khan's inner world of family and daily life with the outer world of his work. Another book Still Reading Khan was released in 2006 which details his family and his life.

Khan's life-size wax statue is available in Madame Tussauds wax museum[10], London, installed in April 2007[11]. Khan has been chosen for the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Order of the Arts and Literature) award of the French government for his “exceptional career”.[citation needed]

[edit] Career

[edit] As Actor
Khan started his acting career in 1988 by appearing in the television series Fauji playing the role of Commando Abhimanyu Rai.[12]. He went to appear in other television serials such as the 1989 serial Circus[13], which depicted the life of circus performers. That same year he also had a minor role in the television film In Which Annie Gives it Those Ones, which was written by Arundhati Roy and based on the life in Delhi University.

After the death of his parents Khan moved from New Delhi to Mumbai in 1991. [14] He made his Bollywood film debut in Deewana (1992) which was a box office hit and launched his career in Bollywood.[15] His debut performance won him a Filmfare Best Debut Award. His second release Maya Memsaab was known for its controversial issues as Khan appeared in what was apparently an "Explicit for Bollywood" sex scene for the film. [16].

In 1993 he won acclaim for his performances as a murderer and obsessive lover respectively in the box office hits Baazigar and Darr. He won his first Filmfare Best Actor Award for his performance in Baazigar. He was also appreciated for his role as a young loser in Kundan Shah's Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa which earned him the Filmfare Best Actor Award (critics) that same year. In 1994 Khan once again played an obsessive lover/psycho role in Anjaam. Even though the movie wasn't a box office success Khan's performance in a negative role earned him the Filmfare Best Villain Award.

In 1995 he starred in Aditya Chopra's directorial debut Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge which was a critical and commercial success[17] and has entered its twelfth year in Mumbai theaters, grossing over 12 billion rupees in all, making it as one of the biggest film blockbusters. [18]

1996 was a disappointing year for Khan as all his films released that year flopped. 1997 meant his diminutive comeback, as his first release, Yash Chopra's Dil to Pagal Hai went on to be the year's second highest grossing film. Khan was also praised for his performance in the film. That same year he also had success with Subhash Ghai's Pardes which was one of the biggest hits of the year and Aziz Mirza's moderately successful film Yes Boss.

Khan was welcomed with similar success in 1998 starring in Karan Johar's directional debut Kuch Kuch Hota Hai which was the biggest hit of the year and won him his third Best Actor award at the Filmfare. He also won critical praise for his performance in Mani Ratnam's Dil Se which did not do well at the box office in India, but earned good collections overseas. [19]

While 1999 was another non-notable year for Khan, the year 2000 saw good success, with Aditya Chopra's second directional film Mohabbatein doing well at the box office, and Mansoor Khan's hit Josh. He gained critical acclaim for his performance in the former, which won him his second award for Best Actor (critics) at the Filmfare. In that same year, Khan set up his own production house Dreamz Unlimited with Juhi Chawla. Both Khan and Chawla starred in the first film from their production house Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani, which did not do well at the box office.

In 2001, Khan collaborated with Karan Johar for the second time with the multi-starrer family film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham, which was one of the biggest hits of the year. He also received favorable reviews for his performance as Emperor Asoka in the historical epic Asoka, which was the second film from his production House.

In 2002, Khan was well-known for playing the title role as the tragic lover Devdas in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's award-winning period romance Devdas (2002) which was an adaptation of Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay's famous novel of the same name.

In 2003, Khan starred in Chalte Chalte which was the first successful film for his production company. He then made his third film with Karan Johar, in Nikhil Advani's directional debut Kal Ho Naa Ho. The movie was one of the year's biggest hits in India and in the overseas market as well. Khan's performance as a guy who has heart disease was also well received.[20]

2004 proved to be a good year for Khan commercially and critically as well. He set up another production company called Red Chillies Entertainment, and starred in its first film Main Hoon Na, directed by Farah Khan. The movie did well at the box office, whilst Yash Chopra's Veer-Zaara was the biggest hit of that year. Khan's performance in the latter was much appreciated and he won various awards at several award ceremonies. Khan also won critical praise for his performance in Ashutosh Gowariker's Swades, which won him the Filmfare Best Actor Award for the sixth time although the film was a box office failure.[21].

His only major film release in 2005 was Paheli which was also produced by Red Chillies Entertainment. It was not as successful at the box office, but won him acclaim. [22].

In 2006 he once again collaborated with Karan Johar in the multi-starrer film Kabhi Alvida Na Kehna (2006) which did well in India and became the biggest hit in the overseas market.[23]. That same year he played the title role in Don (2006), a remake of the 1978 hit film Don which was also successful [24]

His upcoming film is Chak De India which is due to be released in August 2007. He is also producing and starring in Farah Khan's Om Shanti Om which is due for release in November and making a cameo appearance in Farah Khan's brother Sajid Khan's directorial debut Heyy Babyy.

[edit] As a Producer
Khan has also produced some of the films he has starred in. However he has had mixed success as both the producer and the star of his films. He set up a production company called Dreamz Unlimited with Juhi Chawla and director Aziz Mirza in 1999. The first two of the films he produced and starred in: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani (2000) and Asoka (2001) were box office failures.[25].

His third film, as a producer and star, Chalte Chalte (2003), was the first box office hit from his production house.[26]. In 2004 he set up another production company called Red Chillies Entertainment and produced and starred in Main Hoon Na which was another hit at the box office.[27]. In 2005 he produced and starred in the fantasy film Paheli, which was India's selection for the Academy Awards (foreign films category) but did not win. At the box office Paheli was a disappointment.[28] That same year he also co-produced the supernatural horror film Kaal with Karan Johar and performed an item number for the film with Malaika Arora Khan. Kaal was moderately successful at the box office.[29]

The forthcoming film produced by his company Red Chillies Entertainment is Om Shanti Om which he will also star in.

[edit] As Television Host
Khan was chosen as the host of the third series of the popular game show Kaun Banega Crorepati, the Indian version of Who wants to be a millionaire?,[30] in 2007 taking over from the original host Amitabh Bachchan who had hosted the show from 2000 to 2005. The show is deemed the most popular programme in Indian television history. On Monday, January 22, 2007, "KBC" aired with Khan as the new host. The season ended on April 19 2007.[31]

[edit] Awards and nominations
Main article: List of Shah Rukh Khan's awards and nominations

[edit] Filmography

[edit] Actor
Year Title Role Notes
1992 Deewana Raja Sahai Won, Filmfare Best Debut Award
Maya Memsaab Lalit
Dil Aashna Hai Karan
Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman Raju (Raj Mathur)
Chamatkar Sunder Srivastava
1993 Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa Sunil Won, Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance
Darr Rahul Mehra Nominated, Filmfare Best Villain Award
Baazigar Ajay Sharma/Vicky Malhotra Won, Filmfare Best Actor Award
King Uncle Anil
1994 Anjaam Vijay Agnihotri Won, Filmfare Best Villain Award
1995 Trimurti Romi Singh/Bholey
Ram Jaane Ram Jaane
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge Raj Malhotra Won, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Oh Darling! Yeh Hai India Hero
Guddu Guddu Bahadur
Zamana Deewana Rahul Malhotra
Karan Arjun Arjun Singh/Vijay
1996 Dushman Duniya Ka Badru
Army Arjun,Special appearance
Chaahat Roop Rathore
English Babu Desi Mem Vikram/Hari/Gopal Mayur
1997 Dil To Pagal Hai Rahul Won, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Pardes Arjun Saagar
Yes Boss Rahul Joshi Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Koyla Shanker
Gudgudee Special Appearance
1998 Kuch Kuch Hota Hai Rahul Khanna Won, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Dil Se Amarkant Varma
Achanak Special Appearance
Duplicate Bablu Chaudhry/Manu Dada Nominated, Filmfare Best Villain Award
1999 Baadshah Raj 'Baadshah'Heera Nominated, Filmfare Best Comedian Award
2000 Gaja Gamini Shahrukh, Special Appearance
Mohabbatein Raj Aryan Malhotra Won, Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance
Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega Rahul, Special Appearance
Josh Max
Hey Ram Amjad Ali Khan India's official entry to the Oscars
Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani Ajay Bakshi
2001 Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham Rahul Raichand Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Asoka Asoka
One 2 Ka 4 Arun Verma
2002 Saathiya Yeshwant Rao, Special Appearance
Shakti: The Power Jaisingh,Special Appearance
Devdas Devdas Mukherjee Won, Filmfare Best Actor Award, India's entry to Oscars
Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam Gopal
2003 Kal Ho Naa Ho Aman Mathur Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Chalte Chalte Raj Mathur
2004 Swades Mohan Bhargava Won, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Veer-Zaara Veer Pratap Singh Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Main Hoon Na Maj. Ram Prasad Sharma Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Yeh Lamhe Judai Ke Dushant
2005 The Inner and Outer World of Shah Rukh Khan Himself (Biopic) Documentary directed by British-based author and director Nasreen Munni Kabir
Paheli Kishen/The Ghost India's official entry to the Oscars
Silsiilay Sutradhar, Special Appearance
Kaal Special appearance in song Kaal Dhamaal
Kuchh Meetha Ho Jaye Himself, Special Appearance
2006 Alag Special appearance in song Sabse Alag
Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna Dev Saran Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Don - The Chase Begins Again Don/Vijay Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
I See You Special Appearance in Subah Subah song
2007 Chak De India Kabir Khan Releasing August 10, 2007[32]
Heyy Babyy Special Appearance in song Releasing August 24, 2007[33]
Dulha Mil Gaya Raj Releasing October 12, 2007
Om Shanti Om Om Releasing November 9, 2007 [34]
Bhoothnath Special appearance Shooting[35]
2008 Don 2 Don Planning [36]
Robot Announced

[edit] Producer
Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani (2000)
Asoka (2001)
Chalte Chalte (2003)
Main Hoon Na (2004)
Kaal (2005)
Paheli (2005)
My Name Is Anthony Gonsalves (2007)
Om Shanti Om (2007)

[edit] Playback singer
Apun Bola - Josh (2000)
Khaike Paan Banaraswala - Don- The Chase Begins Again (2006)
Ek Hockey Doongi Rakh Ke-Chak De India (2007)

[edit] Stunts Director
Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998)
Main Hoon Na (2004)
Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006)
Chak De India (2007)

[edit] TV career
Fauji (1988) ... Abhimanyu Rai
Dil Dariya (1988)
Circus (1989)
In Which Annie Gives It Those Ones (1989)
Idiot (1991) ... Pawan Raghujan
Kareena Kareena (2004) Zee TV ... Special Appearance
Kaun Banega Crorepati (2007) ... Host

Hrithik Roshan

2007-08-07T00:53:00.000-07:00

Hrithik Roshan

Born January 10, 1974 (1974-01-10) (age 33)
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Years active 1980-1986
2000-Present
Spouse(s) Suzanne Khan (December 2000 - present)
[show]Awards

Hrithik Roshan (Hindi: , Urdu: , pronunciation: {{}) (born Hrithik Roshanlal Nagrath on January 10, 1974), is a prominent Bollywood actor and five time Filmfare Award winner.

Contents [hide]
1 Career
2 Personal life
3 Controversy
4 Awards
5 Filmography
6 References
7 External links

[edit] Career
Roshan's first movie role was as a child artist when he was six years old in the 1980 movie Aasha, when he appeared in a dance sequence as an extra. Roshan went on to appear in Aap Ki Deewane (1980) and Bhagwan Dada (1986) playing minor roles. Roshan then became an assistant director for his father's films Karan Arjun (1995) and Koyla (1997).

Roshan made his debut as a leading man in the 2000 film Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai opposite another debutante actress Amisha Patel. The film was directed by his father and proved to be very successful at the box office, becoming the highest grossing film of 2000[1] and winner of the Filmfare Best Movie Award. Roshan's performance earned him the Filmfare Best Debut Award and the Filmfare Best Actor Award. The film Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai entered the Limca Book of Records in 2003 for the most number of Awards won by a Bollywood Film - 102 awards.[2]

In 2000, Roshan starred in Fiza, which did poorly commercially but was critically acclaimed, and the moderately successful Mission Kashmir which was the third highest grossing film of the year. [3]

As Child artist in Bhagwan Dada (1986)In 2001, Hrithik starred in Yaadein which was a failure at the box office and Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham which did extremely well at the box office, becoming the second-highest grossing film of 2001.[4]

Roshan had an unsuccessful year in 2002 when all three of his releases - Mujhse Dosti Karoge!, Na Tum Jaano Na Hum, Aap Mujhe Achche Lagne Lage - failed to make an impact the box office and were declared flops.[5] In 2003, his film Koi... Mil Gaya was the highest grosser of the year and won many Filmfare Awards, including another Filmfare Best Actor Award and the first Filmfare Best Actor (Critics) for Hrithik.[6]He had only one release in 2004, Lakshya, directed by Farhan Akhtar, which did not do well at the box office[7] although critics called it his most impressive performance so far.[8]

Roshan took a two-year break from acting before resurfacing with the superhero film Krrish, a sequel to his 2003 hit Koi Mil Gaya which released in June 2006. Krrish was a major box office success and one of the highest grossers of 2006.[9] His most recent release is Dhoom 2, a sequel to the 2004 hit Dhoom, in which he played a negative role (a villain) for the first time. The film released on November 24, 2006 and is declared to be the highest grossing film ever in the Hindi film industry. [10] Hrithik is called the first complete bollywood actor as he can dance, he got the look the hieght and is an exellent actor. Kareena kapoor has been in love with him, but he loves his wife too much.

[edit] Personal life
Hrithik Roshan was born in Mumbai, India, to Pinky and actor/director Rakesh Roshan. He is the nephew of well-known music director Rajesh Roshan. Music director Roshan is Hrithik's paternal grandfather, and veteran producer and director J. Om Prakash his maternal grandfather. Hrithik has a supernumerary thumb on his right hand.[11]

Roshan is married to Suzanne Khan (who is now Suzanne Roshan), his high-school sweetheart and daughter of Sanjay Khan. Film clans (see List of Bollywood film clans) tend to intermarry.

The couple had their first child, a baby boy, on March 28, 2006, at 3:08pm at Lilavati Hospital in Mumbai, India. The child was named Hrehaan.[12]

[edit] Controversy
In 2001, a rumor alleging Roshan made disparaging remarks about Nepal and its people c
aused outrage in the country. Several newspapers carried the report, leading to student protests, in which four people died.[13] The unrest the protests caused forced the government to cancel a flight from Kathmandu to India.[14]Later the Indian embassy and the actor himself clarified that he had made no such remarks. [15]The rumor(s) was indeed spread by gangs run by Dawood Ibhrahim and Abu Salem who failed in their attempts to extort money from Hrithik and his father, Rakesh Roshan .

In 2006, at the London press conference for his film Krrish, Roshan said that he knew it was time to leave Shanghai and Hong Kong after six weeks of stunt training and go home when his eyes started "turning into little slits like the Chinese".[16]

[edit] Awards
Main article: List of Hrithik Roshan's awards and nominations

[edit] Filmography
Year Film Role Other notes
1980 Aasha Child Artist
1980 Aap Ke Deewane Child Artist
1986 Bhagwan Dada Govinda (Child artist)
2000 Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai Rohit/Raj Chopra Winner, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Winner, Filmfare Best Debut Award
2000 Fiza Amaan Ikramullah Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
2000 Mission Kashmir Altaf Khan
2001 Yaadein Ronit Malhotra
2001 Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham Rohan Raichand Nominated, Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award
2002 Aap Mujhe Achche Lagne Lage Rohit
2002 Na Tum Jaano Na Hum Rahul Sharma
2002 Mujhse Dosti Karoge! Raj Malhotra
2003 Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon Prem Kishen Mathur
2003 Koi... Mil Gaya Rohit Mehra Winner, Filmfare Best Actor Award
Winner, Filmfare Critics Award for Best Performance
2004 Lakshya Karan Shergill Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award
2006 Krrish Krishna Mehra aka Krrish/Rohit Mehra Nominated, Filmfare Best Actor Award. Dubbed in Tamil and Telugu with the same title.
2006 I See You Pedestrian in Subah Subah song Special Appearance
2006 Dhoom 2 Aryan / Mr. A Winner, Filmfare Best Actor Award. Dubbed in Tamil and Telugu with the same title.
2007 Jodhaa Akbar Akbar Releasing October 12, 2007
2007 Om Shanti Om Himself Special Appearance
2008 Kismat Talkies Announced

[edit] References
^ Boxofficeindia.com. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ "2003 tidbits". Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
^ Boxofficeindia.com. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ "BoxOfficeIndia.com". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "BoxOfficeIndia.com". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "BoxOfficeIndia.com". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "BoxOfficeIndia.com". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "Movie Review:Lakshya". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "BoxOfficeIndia.com". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "Box Office Report 2006". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ "Hrithik Roshan - factfile". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.
^ Hrithik's son to be named Hrehaan. IANS, DNA News. Retrieved on March 23, 2006.
^ "BBC News". Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
^ "The Tribune,Chandigarh,India". Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
^ "The Tribune,Chandigarh,India". Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
^ "Asians in media magazine". Retrieved on 2007-02-05.

Can God Be Reached Directly? Jesus in the Manual for Teachers of A Course In Miracles - Part II

2007-08-06T22:12:00.000-07:00

God goes with you wherever you go.
continuing with "CAN GOD BE REACHED DIRECTLY?"

Sometimes a teacher of God may have a brief experience of direct union with God. In this world, it is almost impossible that this endure. It can, perhaps, be won after much devotion and dedication, and then be maintained for much of the time on earth. But this is so rare that it cannot be considered a realistic goal. If it happens, so be it. If it does not happen, so be it as well. All worldly states must be illusory. If God were reached directly in sustained awareness, the body would not be long maintained. Those who have laid the body down merely to extend their helpfulness to those remaining behind are few indeed. And they need helpers who are still in bondage and still asleep, so that by their awakening can God's Voice be heard.

Do not despair, then, because of limitations. It is your function to escape from them, but not to be without them. If you would be heard by those who suffer, you must speak their language. If you would be a savior, you must understand what needs to be escaped. Salvation is not theoretical. Behold the problem, ask for the answer, and then accept it when it comes. Nor will its coming be long delayed. All the help you can accept will be provided, and not one need you have will not be met. Let us not, then, be too concerned with goals for which you are not ready. God takes you where you are and welcomes you. What more could you desire, when this is all you need?

Image Credits: Dan Bush
All About God and How to Find Him
"I have said, Ye are gods; and all of you are children of the most High." (Ps 82:6)
"In the unprecedented condition of fear and anxiety that besets much of Mankind at this place in time, these positively true ideas that the "Creative Source of all that is or ever will be," surrounds us with perfect peace and happiness that is ours for the perseverance of "finding through seeking," takes on a whole new certainty of possibility.

As a method of discovery, here are some very personal practices and exercises you may employ to accelerate your revelatory experience of communication with God through the Self-realization of your own eternal mind." (The Master Teacher of A Course In Miracles)

Remember:
God Is.
And always was
And always will be.
He is not lost.
You are!

Following here will be lessons from the Workbook of A Course In Miracles, 41 to 50, including 94, 110, 162 and 109.

God Is My Source. I Cannot See Apart From Him.

"Perception is not an attribute of God. His is the realm of knowledge. Yet He has created the Holy Spirit as the Mediator between perception and knowledge. Without this link with God, perception would have replaced knowledge forever in your mind. With this link with God, perception will become so changed and purified that it will lead to knowledge. That is its function as the Holy Spirit sees it. Therefore, that is its function in truth.

In order to see, you must recognize that light is within, not without. You do not see outside yourself, nor is the equipment for seeing outside you. An essential part of this equipment is the light that makes seeing possible. It is with you always, making vision possible in every circumstance. ..." (Read the whole lesson.)

"For the Father loveth the Son,
and sheweth him all things that Himself doeth:
and He will shew him greater works than these,
that ye may marvel.
For as the Father raiseth up the dead,
and quickeneth them;
even so the Son quickeneth whom he will.
(John 5:20-21)
All About God and How to Find Him
For all the gods of the nations are idols: but the LORD made the heavens. (Ps 96,5)
God Is The Light In Which I See.

We are continuing the idea that God is your Source and you cannot see apart from Him, and adding another dimension to it. You cannot see in darkness, and you cannot make light. You can make darkness and then think you see in it, but light reflects life, and is therefore an aspect of creation. Creation and darkness cannot coexist, but light and life must go together, being but different aspects of creation.

In order to see, you must recognize that light is within, not without. You do not see outside yourself, nor is the equipment for seeing outside you. An essential part of this equipment is the light that makes seeing possible. It is with you always, making vision possible in every circumstance.

Today we are going to attempt to reach that light. For this purpose, we will use a form of exercise which we will utilize increasingly. It is a particularly difficult form for the undisciplined mind, and represents a major goal of mind training. It requires precisely what the untrained mind lacks. Yet this training must be accomplished if you are to see.

... The form of practice we will use today is the most natural and easy one in the world for the trained mind, just as it seems to be the most unnatural and difficult for the untrained mind... (Read the whole lesson.)

"Before the light you will receive today the world will fade until it disappears, and you will see another world arise you have no words to picture. Now we walk directly into light.

Close your eyes upon the world you see, and in the silent darkness watch the lights that are not of this world light one by one, until where one begins another ends loses all meaning as they blend in one. The lights of Heaven bend to you.

Angels light the way, so that all darkness vanishes, and you are standing in a light so bright and clear that you can understand all things you see. A tiny moment of surprise, perhaps, will make you pause before you realize the world you see before you in the light reflects the truth you knew, and did not quite forget in wandering away in dreams." (Workbook Lessons 122, 129, 131 )
All About God and How to Find Him
"Behold, what manner of love the Father hath bestowed upon us, that we should be called the sons of God: therefore the world knoweth us not, because it knew him not." (1Joh 3:1)
God Is The Mind With Which I Think.

"This idea holds the key to what your real thoughts are. They are nothing that you think you think, just as nothing that you think you see is related to vision in any way. There is no relationship between what is real and what you think is real. Nothing that you think are your real thoughts resemble your real thoughts in any respect. Nothing that you think you see bears any resemblance to what vision will show you.

You think with the Mind of God. Therefore you share your thoughts with Him, as He shares His with you. They are the same thoughts, because they are thought by the same Mind. To share is to make alike, or to make one. Nor do the thoughts you think with the Mind of God leave your mind, because thoughts do not leave their source. Therefore, your thoughts are in the Mind of God, as you are. They are in your mind as well, where He is. As you are part of His Mind, so are your thoughts part of His Mind.

Where, then, are your real thoughts? Today we will attempt to reach them. We will have to look for them in your mind, because that is where they are. They must still be there, because they cannot have left their source. What is thought by the Mind of God is eternal, being part of creation..." (Read the whole lesson.)

"Beyond the body, beyond the sun and stars, past everything you see and yet somehow familiar, is an arc of golden light that stretches as you look into a great and shining circle. And all the circle fills with light before your eyes. The edges of the circle disappear, and what is in it is no longer contained at all. The light expands and covers everything, extending to infinity forever shining and with no break or limit anywhere. Within it everything is joined in perfect continuity. Nor is it possible to imagine that anything could be outside, for there is nowhere that this light is not." (Chapter 21, A Course In Miracles)
All About God and How to Find Him
"Nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God..." (Rom 8:39)
God Is The Love In Which I Forgive.

God does not forgive because He has never condemned. And there must be condemnation before forgiveness is necessary. Forgiveness is the great need of this world, but that is because it is a world of illusions. Those who forgive are thus releasing themselves from illusions, while those who withhold forgiveness are binding themselves to them. As you condemn only yourself, so do you forgive only yourself.

Yet although God does not forgive, His Love is nevertheless the basis of forgiveness. Fear condemns and love forgives. Forgiveness thus undoes what fear has produced, returning the mind to the awareness of God. For this reason, forgiveness can truly be called salvation. It is the means by which illusions disappear... (Read the whole lesson.)

"Love your enemies, bless them that curse you,
do good to them that hate you, and pray for them
which despitefully use you, and persecute you;
Be ye therefore perfect,
even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect."
(Matthew 5:44-48)
All About God and How to Find Him
My flesh and my heart faileth: but God is the strength of my heart, and my portion for ever. (Ps 73:26)
God Is The Strength In Which I Trust.

"If you are trusting in your own strength, you have every reason to be apprehensive, anxious and fearful. What can you predict or control? What is there in you that can be counted on? What would give you the ability to be aware of all the facets of any problem, and to resolve them in such a way that only good can come of it? What is there in you that gives you the recognition of the right solution, and the guarantee that it will be accomplished?

Of yourself you can do none of these things. To believe that you can is to put your trust where trust is unwarranted, and to justify fear, anxiety, depression, anger and sorrow. Who can put his faith in weakness and feel safe? Yet who can put his faith in strength and feel weak?

God is your safety in every circumstance. His Voice speaks for Him in all situations and in every aspect of all situations, telling you exactly what to do to call upon His Strength and His Protection. There are no exceptions because God has no exceptions. And the Voice which speaks for Him thinks as He does... (Read the whole lesson.)

"And all things,
whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer, believing,
ye shall receive.
All power is given unto you in heaven and earth.
Go ye therefore and heal the sick and raise the dead."
(Matthew 21:22, 28:18, 10:8)
All About God and How to Find Him
"Not that any man hath seen the Father, save he which is of God, he hath seen the Father." (Jh 6:46)
God Is My Strength. Vision Is His Gift.

"This idea combines two very powerful thoughts, both of major importance. It also sets forth a cause and effect relationship that explains why you cannot fail in your efforts to achieve the goal you have set for yourself. You will see because it is the Will of God. It is His Strength, not your own, that gives you power. And it is His Gift, rather than your own, that offers vision to you.

God is indeed your strength, and what He gives is truly given. This means that you can receive it any time and anywhere, wherever you are, and in whatever circumstance you find yourself. Your passage through time and space is not at random. You cannot but be in the right place at the right time. Such is the Strength of God. Such are His Gifts..." (Read the whole lesson.)

"Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and you shall find;
knock, and it shall be opened unto you:
For every one that asks receives; and he that seeks finds;
and to him that knocks it shall be opened."
(Matthew 7:7-8 )
All About God and How to Find Him
Fear is lack of love, and is healed only by perfect love.
There Is Nothing To Fear.

"The idea for today simply states a fact. It is not a fact to those who believe in illusions, but illusions are not facts. In truth there is nothing to fear. It is very easy to recognize this. But it is very difficult to recognize it for those who want illusions to be true.

Today's practice periods will be very short, very simple and very frequent. Merely repeat there is nothing to fear as often as possible.

You can use it with your eyes open at any time and in any situation. It is strongly recommended, however, that you take a minute or so whenever possible to close your eyes and repeat the idea slowly to yourself several times. It is particularly important that you use the idea immediately, should anything disturb your peace of mind.

The presence of fear is a sure sign that you are trusting in your own strength. The awareness that there is nothing to fear shows that somewhere in your mind, though not necessarily in a place you recognize as yet, you have remembered God, and let His Strength take the place of your weakness.

The instant you are willing to do this there is indeed nothing to fear. Any one of these ideas will work perfectly if you let it:

I come from God, there is nothing to fear. God is with me, there is nothing to fear. God is my Strength, there is nothing to fear. God lights my way, there is nothing to fear."
All About God and How to Find Him
It is quite possible to reach God.
God Goes With Me Wherever I Go.

"This idea will overcome completely the sense of loneliness and abandonment all the separated ones experience. Depression is an inevitable consequence of separation. So are anxiety, worry, a deep sense of helplessness, misery, suffering and intense fear of loss.

The separated ones have invented many "cures" for what they believe to be "the ills of the world." But the one thing they do not do is to question the reality of the problem. Yet its effects cannot be cured because the problem is not real. The idea for today has the power to end all this foolishness forever. And foolishness it is, despite the serious and tragic forms it may take.

Deep within you is everything that is perfect, ready to radiate through you and out into the world. It will cure all sorrow and pain and fear and loss because it will heal the mind that thought these things were real, and suffered out of its allegiance to them.

You can never be deprived of your perfect holiness because its Source goes with you wherever you go. You can never suffer because the Source of all joy goes with you wherever you go. You can never be alone because the Source of all life goes with you wherever you go. Nothing can destroy your peace of mind because God goes with you wherever you go.
(Read the whole lesson.)
Order the Booklet "ALL ABOUT GOD AND HOW TO FIND HIM"
Get the booklet together with an intro package and find God wherever you are, in your mind.
To complete the lessons of the booklet, All About God And How To Find Him, I give you the titles from A Course In Miracles:

God's voice speaks to me all through the day.
I am sustained by the Love of God.
I am as God created me.
I am as God created me.
I am as God created me.
I rest in God.

(Not that there are three different lessons with the same title, "I am as God created me."

To order the Booklet, click here.
What Is Your Experience of God? Please share it, also, comment on this lens, before you leave. Thank you
Do you have a story to tell? Maybe healing stories, insights, revelations, thoughts, miracles?
"Let us today be children of the truth, and not deny our holy heritage. Our life is not as we imagine it. Who changes life because he shuts his eyes, or makes himself what he is not because he sleeps, and sees in dreams an opposite to what he is? We will not ask for death in any form today. Nor will we let imagined opposites to life abide even an instant where the Thought of life eternal has been set by God Himself." (Lesson 167, A Course In Miracles)

Can God Be Reached Directly? Jesus in the Manual for Teachers of A Course In Miracles - Part I

2007-08-06T22:10:00.000-07:00

Could He be ever absent from you?
"It is quite possible to reach God. In fact it is very easy, because it is the most natural thing in the world. You might even say it is the only natural thing in the world. The way will open, if you believe that it is possible. This exercise can bring very startling results even the first time it is attempted, and sooner or later it is always successful. But it will never fail completely, and instant success is possible." (Lesson 41, A Course In Miracles)

"CAN GOD BE REACHED DIRECTLY?"

God indeed can be reached directly, for there is no distance between Him and His Son. His awareness is in everyone's memory, and His Word is written on everyone's heart. Yet this awareness and this memory can arise across the threshold of recognition only where all barriers to truth have been removed. In how many is this the case? Here, then, is the role of God's teachers. They, too, have not attained the necessary understanding as yet, but they have joined with others. This is what sets them apart from the world. And it is this that enables others to leave the world with them. Alone they are nothing. But in their joining is the Power of God.

There are those who have reached God directly, retaining no trace of worldly limits and remembering their own Identity perfectly. These might be called the Teachers of teachers because, although they are no longer visible, their image can yet be called upon. And they will appear when and where it is helpful for them to do so. To those to whom such appearances would be frightening, they give their ideas. No one can call on them in vain. Nor is there anyone of whom they are unaware. All needs are known to them, and all mistakes are recognized and overlooked by them. The time will come when this is understood. And meanwhile, they give all their gifts to the teachers of God who look to them for help, asking all things in their Name and in no other.

Experience Direct Contact with God through Forgiveness in Your Course In Miracles

2007-08-06T22:06:00.000-07:00

"The journey to God is merely the reawakening of the knowledge of where you are always, and what you are forever. It is a journey without distance to a goal that has never changed. Truth can only be experienced. It cannot be described and it cannot be explained. I can make you aware of the conditions of truth, but the experience is of God. Together we can meet its conditions, but truth will dawn upon you of itself...

Listen to the story of the prodigal son, and learn what God's treasure is and yours: This son of a loving father left his home and thought he had squandered everything for nothing of any value, although he had not understood its worthlessness at the time. He was ashamed to return to his father, because he thought he had hurt him. Yet when he came home the father welcomed him with joy, because the son himself was his father's treasure. He wanted nothing else.

God wants only His Son because His Son is His only treasure. You want your creations as He wants His. Your creations are your gift to the Holy Trinity, created in gratitude for your creation. They do not leave you any more than you left your Creator, but they extend your creation as God extended Himself to you. Can the creations of God Himself take joy in what is not real? And what is real except the creations of God and those that are created like His? Your creations love you as you love your Father for the gift of creation. There is no other gift that is eternal, and therefore there is no other gift that is true. How, then, can you accept anything else or give anything else, and expect joy in return? And what else but joy would you want? You made neither yourself nor your function. You made only the decision to be unworthy of both. Yet you cannot make yourself unworthy because you are the treasure of God, and what He values is valuable. There can be no question of its worth, because its value lies in God's sharing Himself with it and establishing its value forever." (A Course In Miracles, Chapter 8)

God is in between your thoughts. God is where you are, in the music that you listen to, in everything you give with love, because you cannot be separate from your Source. Ideas do not leave their source.

God Is the Mind with Which You Think...

2007-08-06T22:04:00.000-07:00

Are you looking for God, realizing that this world
has nothing to offer that you really want?

Are you looking for God, a real solution, discovering that you
cannot stand this place of emptiness and meaninglessness?

Are you looking for help beyond yourself, knowing
you have used up all your options and old ideas?

Are you looking for God, being tired
of your addiction to death and guilt?

Are you looking for God, having nowhere
to turn to deep down in your hate of yourself?

You are at the right place. This is YOUR awakening.

What more could you possibly ask for then to remember what you really want in your momentary idea of yourself, and to find the light and strength and peace of your eternal relationship with your Father and God, and with your brother who is yourself? "You do not ask too much of life, but far too little. When you let your mind be drawn to bodily concerns, to things you buy, to eminence as valued by the world, you ask for sorrow, not for happiness. This course does not attempt to take from you the little that you have. It does not try to substitute utopian ideas for satisfactions which the world contains. There are no satisfactions in the world." (Lesson 133, A Course In Miracles)

You cannot usurp the power of God, you can only be His glorious Son, doing only what you see your Father doing.

"Verily, verily, I say unto you, The Son can do nothing of himself, but what he seeth the Father do: for what things soever he doeth, these also doeth the Son likewise. For the Father loveth the Son, and sheweth him all things that himself doeth: and he will shew him greater works than these, that ye may marvel. For as the Father raiseth up the dead, and quickeneth them; even so the Son quickeneth whom he will. For the Father judgeth no man, but hath committed all judgment unto the Son: That all men should honour the Son, even as they honour the Father. He that honoureth not the Son honoureth not the Father which hath sent him. Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that heareth my word, and believeth on him that sent me, hath everlasting life, and shall not come into condemnation; but is passed from death unto life. Verily, verily, I say unto you, The hour is coming, and now is, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God: and they that hear shall live." (John 5: 19-25)

"I can of mine own self do nothing: as I hear, I judge: and my judgment is just; because I seek not mine own will, but the will of the Father which hath sent me. If I bear witness of myself, my witness is not true. There is another that beareth witness of me; and I know that the witness which he witnesseth of me is true." (John 5: 30-32)

There is one Life, and that you share with God. God is but Love, and therefore so are you.

In this lens you will find evidence of you being whole and perfect as God's idea of Himself.

You will find the opportunity to change your mind about yourself and the world and realign yourself with what God's Will and creation is. For God did not create this world of pain, sickness and death, of torture and cruel punishment and endless conflict. He is not evil in causing you pain and death, or anyone else. God does not know of you in your idea of yourself. He did not create a meaningless world where you come to get old, suffer and die. He only knows you perfect and whole, as joy without opposite. You will see that a loving God could not oossibly be cause of your world. Therefore, take heart, dreamer of death, and make use of your power of decision to say, "enough is enough, God created me to live and be whole and perfect, I am not going to die anymore, I choose Heaven instead. I accept correction and forgiveness for myself, and go home through being restored to the power and action of my mind."

You will find multimedia content designed and used to offer a real alternative to your nightmare of attack and defense in your dualistic or conceptual mind construct. You will find many references to what Jesus tells you about your
Father, about forgiveness and healing in the remembrance of Who you really are, many of them given in A Course In Miracles, which is your letter to yourself by Jesus Christ to call you home and awaken from this dream of separation.

Remember always, it is about an experience of yourself. You can't get this conceptually, because you are light, all power there is. You individually, personally will have to undergo a complete transformation from death to Life, from flesh to Spirit, from form to formlessness, from body to Mind.

Listed in BlogCatalog

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-06T00:04:00.001-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
The Temple of Artemis, Turkey
The great marble temple dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis was completed around 550 B.C. at Ephesus, near the modern-day town of Selçuk in Turkey.

In addition to its 120 columns, each standing 60 feet (20 meters) high, the temple was said to have held many exquisite artworks, including bronze statues of the Amazons, a mythical race of female warriors.

A man named Herostratus reportedly burned down the temple in 356 B.C. in an attempt to immortalize his name. After being restored, the temple was destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 262 and again by the Christians in A.D. 401 on the orders of Saint John Chrysostom, then archbishop of Constantinople (Istanbul).

Today the temple's foundations have been excavated and some of its columns re-erected.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-06T00:02:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Turkey
The famous tomb at Halicarnassus—now the city of Bodrum—was built between 370 and 350 B.C. for King Mausolus of Caria, a region in the southwest of modern Turkey. Legend says that the king's grieving wife Artemisia II had the tomb constructed as a memorial to their love.

Mausolus was a satrap, or governor, in the Persian Empire, and his fabled tomb is the source of the word "mausoleum." The structure measured 120 feet (40 meters) long and 140 feet (45 meters) tall.

The tomb was most admired for its architectural beauty and splendor. The central burial chamber was decorated in gold, while the exterior was adorned with ornate stone friezes and sculptures created by four Greek artists.

The mausoleum stood intact until the early 15th century, when Christian Crusaders dismantled it for building material for a new castle. Some of the sculptures and frieze sections survived and can be seen today at the British Museum in London, England.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-06T00:00:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Iraq
The hanging gardens are said to have stood on the banks of the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq, although there's some doubt as to whether they ever really existed.

The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II supposedly created the terraced gardens around 600 B.C. at his royal palace in the Mesopotamian desert. It is said the gardens were made to please the king's wife, who missed the lush greenery of her homeland in the Medes, in what is now northern Iran.

Archaeologists have yet to agree on the likely site of the hanging gardens, but findings in the region that could be its remains include the foundations of a palace and a nearby vaulted building with an irrigation well.

The most detailed descriptions of the gardens come from Greek historians. There is no mention of them in ancient Babylonian records.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:58:00.000-07:00

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece
The massive gold statue of the king of the Greek gods was built in honor of the original Olympic games, which began in the ancient city of Olympia.

The statue, completed by the classical sculptor Phidias around 432 B.C., sat on a jewel-encrusted wooden throne inside a temple overlooking the city. The 40-foot-tall (12-meter-tall) figure held a scepter in one hand and a small statue of the goddess of victory, Nike, in the other—both made from ivory and precious metals.

The temple was closed when the Olympics were banned as a pagan practice in A.D. 391, after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

The statue was eventually destroyed, although historians debate whether it perished with the temple or was moved to Constantinople (now Istanbul) in Turkey and burned in a fire.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:57:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
The Lighthouse of Alexandra, Egypt
The lighthouse was the only ancient wonder that had a practical use, serving as a beacon for ships in the dangerous waters off the Egyptian port city of Alexandria, now called El Iskandarîya.

Constructed on the small island of Pharos between 285 and 247 B.C., the building was the world's tallest for many centuries. Its estimated height was 384 feet (117 meters)—equivalent to a modern 40-story building—though some people believe it was significantly taller.

The lighthouse was operated using fire at night and polished bronze mirrors that reflected the sun during the day. It's said the light could be seen for more than 35 miles (50 kilometers) out to sea.

The huge structure towered over the Mediterranean coast for more than 1,500 years before being seriously damaged by earthquakes in A.D. 1303 and 1323.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:56:00.000-07:00

The Colossus of Rhodes, Greece
In contrast to the pyramids, the colossus was the shortest lived of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Completed in 282 B.C. after taking 12 years to build, the Colossus of Rhodes was felled by an earthquake that snapped the statue off at the knees a mere 56 years later.

The towering figure—made of stone and iron with an outer skin of bronze—represented the Greek sun god Helios, the island's patron god. It looked out from Mandráki Harbor on the Mediterranean island of Ródos (Rhodes), although it is no longer believed to have straddled the harbor entrance as often shown in illustrations.

The Colossus stood about 110 feet (33 meters) tall, making it the tallest known statue of the ancient world. It was erected to celebrate the unification of the island's three city-states, which successfully resisted a long siege by the Antigonids of Macedonia

7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:54:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
The Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt
The Egyptian pharaoh Khufu built the Great Pyramid in about 2560 B.C. to serve as his tomb. The pyramid is the oldest structure on the original list of the seven wonders of the ancient world, which was compiled by Greek scholars about 2,200 years ago. It is also the only remaining survivor from the original list.

The Great Pyramid is the largest of three Pyramids at Giza, bordering modern-day Cairo. Although weathering has caused the structure to stand a few feet shorter today, the pyramid was about 480 feet (145 meters) high when it was first built. It is thought to have been the planet's tallest human-made structure for more than four millennia.

Initially the Giza Pyramids were top contenders in the Internet and phone ballot to make a new list of world wonders. But leading Egyptian officials were outraged by the contest, saying the pyramids shouldn't be put to a vote.

"This contest will not detract from the value of the Pyramids, which is the only real wonder of the world," Egypt's antiquities chief Zahi Hawass told the AFP news agency.

Instead competition organizers withdrew the Pyramids from the competition in April and granted them "honorary wonder" status.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:53:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
Taj Mahal, India
The Taj Mahal, in Agra, India, is the spectacular mausoleum built by Muslim Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to honor the memory of his beloved late wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

Construction began in 1632 and took about 15 years to complete. The opulent, domed mausoleum, which stands in formal walled gardens, is generally regarded as finest example of Mughal art and architecture. It includes four minarets, each more than 13 stories tall.

Shah Jahan was deposed and put under house arrest by one of his sons soon after the Taj Mahal's completion. It's said that he spent the rest of his days gazing at the Taj Mahal from a window.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:47:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
Chichén Itzá, Mexico
Chichén Itzá is possibly the most famous temple city of the Mayas, a pre-Columbian civilization that lived in present day Central America. It was the political and religious center of Maya civilization during the period from A.D. 750 to 1200.

At the city's heart lies the Temple of Kukulkan (pictured)—which rises to a height of 79 feet (24 meters). Each of its four sides has 91 steps—one step for each day of the year, with the 365th day represented by the platform on the top.

The New7Wonders competition was launched in 1999, and the voting process beginning in 2005. Nearly 200 nominations that came in from around the world were narrowed down to 21.

Unsuccessful finalists included the giant statues of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean; the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia; and the Sydney Opera House in Australia.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:42:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
Machu Picchu, Peru
One of three successful candidates from Latin America, Machu Picchu is a 15th-century mountain settlement in the Amazon region of Peru.

The ruined city is among the best known remnants of the Inca civilization, which flourished in the Andes region of western South America. The city is thought to have been abandoned following an outbreak of deadly smallpox, a disease introduced in the 1500s by invading Spanish forces.

Hundreds of people gathered at the remote, 7,970-foot-high (2,430-meter-high) site on Saturday to celebrate Machu Picchu's new “seven wonders” status.

The winners were revealed at a soccer stadium in the Portuguese capital, Lisbon, where Machu Picchu reportedly got one of the biggest cheers.

The other two Latin American selections were Christ the Redeemer in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and Chichén Itzá, Mexico.

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:35:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
Petra, Jordan
Perched on the edge of the Arabian Desert, Petra was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom of King Aretas IV (9 B.C. to A.D. 40).

Petra is famous for its many stone structures such as a 138-foot-tall (42-meter-tall) temple carved with classical facades into rose-colored rock. The ancient city also included tunnels, water chambers, and an amphitheater, which held 4,000 people.

The desert site wasn't known to the West until Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt came across it in 1812.

Jordan has taken the New7Wonders competition seriously. Petra is an important attraction in a country where tourism has recently suffered due to troubles in the Middle East region, particularly in neighboring Iraq.

The Jordanian royal family backed a campaign promoting Petra's selection

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:29:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
The Colosseum, Rome, Italy
The only finalist from Europe to make it into the top seven—the Colosseum in Rome, Italy—once held up to 50,000 spectators who came to watch gory games involving gladiators, wild animals, and prisoners.

Construction began around A.D. 70 under Emperor Vespasian. Modern sports stadiums still resemble the Colosseum's famous design.

European sites that didn't make the cut include Stonehenge in the United Kingdom, the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, and the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France.

The Vatican in Rome accused the competition's organizers of ignoring Christian monuments, none of which was featured among the 20 finalists. Archbishop Mauro Piacenza, head of culture and archaeology at the Vatican, called the omission of sites such as the Sistine Chapel “inexplicable.”

New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:27:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
Great Wall of China
This newly elected world wonder was built along China's northern border over many centuries to keep out invading Mongol tribes.

Constructed between the fifth century B.C. and the 16th century, the Great Wall is the world's longest human-made structure, stretching some 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers). The best known section was built around 200 B.C. by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang Di.

The wall was among the winners of the New7Wonders poll announced during a televised ceremony in Lisbon, Portugal. However the Chinese state broadcaster chose not to broadcast the event, and Chinese state heritage officials refused to endorse the competition.

It was a different story for some of the other candidates. In Brazil, for example, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva encouraged his compatriots to vote for Rio de Janeiro's mountaintop statue of Jesus Christ.

Photo Gallery: New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders

2007-08-05T23:22:00.000-07:00

RELATED STORIES
Photo Gallery: Opera House, Spanish Volcano Among World Heritage List Adds (July, 2007)
People and Places
Great Pyramid Built Inside Out, French Architect Says (April 2, 2007)
July 9, 2007—The 105-foot-tall (38-meter-tall) "Christ the Redeemer" statue in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, was among the "new seven wonders of the world" announced July 7 following a global poll to decide a new list of human-made marvels.
The winners were voted for by Internet and phone, American Idol style. The other six new wonders are the Colosseum in Rome, India's Taj Mahal, the Great Wall of China, Jordan's ancient city of Petra, the Inca ruins of Machu Picchu in Peru, and the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá in Mexico.

The contest was organized by the New7Wonders Foundation—the brainchild of Swiss filmmaker and museum curator Bernard Weber—in order to "protect humankind's heritage across the globe." The foundation says the poll attracted almost a hundred million votes.

Yet the competition has proved controversial, drawing criticism from the United Nations' cultural organization UNESCO, which administers the World Heritage sites program (pictures of the newest World Heritage sites).

"This initiative cannot, in any significant and sustainable manner, contribute to the preservation of sites elected by [the] public," UNESCO said in a statement.

Miami, Florida

2007-08-05T23:12:00.000-07:00

Country United States
State Florida
County Miami-Dade
Incorporated July 28, 1896
Government
- Type Mayor-Commissioner Plan
- Mayor Manny Diaz (I)
- City Manager Pedro G. Hernandez
- City Attorney Jorge L. Fernandez
- City Clerk Priscilla Thompson
Area
- City 55.27 sq mi (143.15 km²)
- Land 35.68 sq mi (92.42 km²)
- Water 19.59 sq mi (50.73 km²)
Elevation 6 ft (2 m)
Population (2006)
- City 404,048
- Density 11,554/sq mi (3,923.5/km²)
- Urban 4,919,036
- Metro 5,463,857
Time zone EST (UTC-5)
- Summer (DST) EDT (UTC-4)
Area code(s) 305, 786
“Miami” redirects here. For the Native American tribe, see Miami tribe.
For other uses, see Miami (disambiguation).
Miami, Florida

A portion of Miami's downtown skyline as seen from Biscayne Bay.

Flag
Seal

Nickname: The Magic City, M-I-A, The 305

Location in Miami-Dade County and the state of Florida.
Coordinates: 25°47′16″N 80°13′″W / 25.78778, Expression error: Unexpected / operator
Country United States
State Florida
County Miami-Dade
Incorporated July 28, 1896
Government
- Type Mayor-Commissioner Plan
- Mayor Manny Diaz (I)
- City Manager Pedro G. Hernandez
- City Attorney Jorge L. Fernandez
- City Clerk Priscilla Thompson
Area
- City 55.27 sq mi (143.15 km²)
- Land 35.68 sq mi (92.42 km²)
- Water 19.59 sq mi (50.73 km²)
Elevation 6 ft (2 m)
Population (2006)
- City 404,048
- Density 11,554/sq mi (3,923.5/km²)
- Urban 4,919,036
- Metro 5,463,857
Time zone EST (UTC-5)
- Summer (DST) EDT (UTC-4)
Area code(s) 305, 786
Website: http://www.ci.miami.fl.us/
Miami is a major city in southeastern Florida, in the United States. It is the county seat of Miami-Dade County. Miami is a gamma world city with an estimated population of 404,048. At just 35.68 mi² of land (55.27 mi² total), it's one of the smallest major cities in United States. It is the largest city within the South Florida metropolitan area, which is the largest metropolitan area in the Southeastern United States with 5.4 million. Miami and its surrounding cities make up the fifth largest urban area in the United States. [1]

Miami's importance as an international financial and cultural center has elevated Miami to the status of world city. Because of Miami's cultural and linguistic ties to North, South, and Central America, as well as the Caribbean, Miami is many times referred to as "The Gateway of the Americas." Florida's large Spanish-speaking population and strong economic ties to Latin America also make Miami and the surrounding region an important center of the Hispanic world.

Miami is also home to one of the largest, most influential ports in the United States, the Port of Miami. The port is oftentimes called the "Cruise Capital of the World" and the "Cargo Gateway of the Americas". It has retained its status as the number one cruise/passenger port in the world for well over a decade accommodating the largest cruise ships and the major cruise lines.

Today, Miami is undergoing a massive building boom that ranks second worldwide (and first in the United States) for the most buildings under construction that will be over 492ft (150m), with over 24 of such buildings currently under construction. Miami's skyline also currently ranks third in the U.S. behind New York City and Chicago (18th in the world) according to the 2006 Almanac of Architecture and Design.[2] Including other nearby neighborhoods and cities, the Miami area has over 80 highrise towers under construction, such as the Biscayne Wall in Downtown Miami, a row of skyscrapers being built along the west side of Biscayne Boulevard. Miami currently has the five tallest skyscrapers in the state of Florida with the tallest being the Four Seasons Hotel & Tower.[3]

[edit] History
Main article: History of Miami, Florida

In 1896, close to 400 people crowded onto the second floor of the Lobby Pool Room to vote to incorporate Miami as a city. The building to the left in this photo is the site of this historical meeting.[4]Miami was officially incorporated as a city on July 28, 1896, though the area was first inhabited for more than a thousand years by the Tequesta Indians and was claimed for Spain in 1566 by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. A Spanish mission was established a year later in 1567. In the mid-1800s Fort Dallas was built and subsequently, was a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. In the 1920s, Miami prospered through the Florida Land Boom of the 1920's with an increase in population and infrastructure. By 1940, 172,172 people lived in the city and Miami had grown to become a large, growing city.

The Miami area was better known as “Biscayne Bay Country” in the early years of its growth. The few published accounts from that period describe the area as a wilderness that held much promise.[5] The area was also characterized as “one of the finest building sites in Florida.”[6] However, the Great Freeze of 1894 changed all that, and the crops of the Miami area were the only ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower, convinced Henry Flagler, a railroad tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railroad to Miami. On July 28, 1896, Miami was officially incorporated as a city with a population of just over 300.

Miami prospered during the 1920s but weakened after the collapse of the Florida land boom of the 1920's, the 1926 Miami Hurricane and the Great Depression in the 1930s. When World War II began, Miami, well-situated due to its location on the southern coast of Florida, played an important role in the battle against German submarines. The war helped to expand Miami's population to almost half a million. After Fidel Castro rose to power in 1959, many Cubans emigrated to Miami, further increasing the population. In the 1980s and 1990s, various crises struck South Florida, among them the Arthur McDuffie beating and the subsequent riot, drug wars, Hurricane Andrew, and the Elián González uproar. Miami remains a major international financial and cultural center.

[edit] Geography

Miami and its suburbs are located on a broad plain between the Florida Everglades to the west and Biscayne Bay to the east that also extends from Florida Bay north to Lake Okeechobee. The elevation of the area never rises above 40 ft (12 m)[7] and averages at around 6 ft (2 m)[8] above sea level in most neighborhoods, especially near the coast. The highest undulations are found along the coastal Miami Rock Ridge, whose substrate underlies most of the eastern Miami metropolitan region. The main portion of the city lies on the shores of Biscayne Bay which contains several hundred natural and artificially-created barrier islands, the largest of which contains the city of Miami Beach and its famous South Beach district. The Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current, runs northward just 15 miles (24.1 km) off the coast, allowing the city's climate to stay warm and mild all year.

[edit] Geology

View from one of the high points in Miami, west of downtown from SW 9th Street. The western part of the city (Little Havana) has points as high as 40' above sea level.Photo: Marc AveretteThe surface bedrock under the Miami area is called Miami oolite or Miami limestone. This bedrock is covered by a thin layer of soil, and is no more than 50 feet (15 m) thick. Miami limestone formed as the result of the drastic changes in sea level associated with recent glaciations or ice ages. Beginning some 130,000 years ago the Sangamon interglacial raised sea levels to approximately 25 feet (7.5 m.) above the current level. All of southern Florida was covered by a shallow sea. Several parallel lines of reef formed along the edge of the submerged Florida plateau, stretching from the present Miami area to what is now the Dry Tortugas. The area behind this reef line was in effect a large lagoon, and the Miami limestone formed throughout the area from the deposition of oolites and the shells of bryozoans. Starting about 100,000 years ago the Wisconsin glaciation began lowering sea levels, exposing the floor of the lagoon. By 15,000 years ago, the sea level had dropped to 300 to 350 feet below the contemporary level. The sea level rose quickly after that, stabilizing at the current level about 4000 years ago, leaving the mainland of South Florida just above sea level.

Beneath the plain lies the Biscayne Aquifer,[9] a natural underground source of fresh water that extends from southern Palm Beach County to Florida Bay, with its highest point peaking around the cities of Miami Springs and Hialeah. Most of the South Florida metropolitan area obtains its drinking water from this aquifer. As a result of the aquifer, it is not possible to dig more than 15 to 20ft (4.57 to 6.1 m) beneath the city without hitting water, which impedes underground construction. For this reason there is no underground subway system (though there is an elevated train line) in Miami.

Most of the western fringes of the city extend into the Everglades, a subtropical marshland located in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida. This causes occasional problems with local wildlife such as alligators venturing onto suburban communities and major highways.

In terms of land area, Miami is one of the smallest major cities in the United States. According to the US Census Bureau, the city encompasses a total area of 55.27 mi² (143.15 km²). Of that area, 35.67 mi² (92.68 km²) are land and 19.59 mi² (50.73 km²) are water. Miami is slightly smaller in land area than San Francisco and Boston. Miami is located at 25°47′16″N, 80°13′27″W.GR1

[edit] Climate

Typical summer afternoon shower rolling in from the Everglades. Photo: Marc AveretteMiami has a true tropical climate,[10] with hot, humid summers, and warm, dry winters. The city does experience cold fronts from November through March. However, the average monthly temperature for any month has never been recorded as being under 64.4°F (January averages 67°F), which classifies the climate as being tropical.[11] Most of the year is warm and humid, and the summers are almost identical to the climate of the Caribbean tropics. In addition, the city gets most of its rain in the summer (wet season) and is mainly dry in winter (dry season). The wet season, which is hot and humid, lasts from May to September, when it gives way to the dry season, which features mild temperatures with some invasions of colder air, which is when the little winter rainfall occurs — with the passing of a front. The hurricane season largely coincides with the wet season.[12]

In addition to its sea-level elevation, coastal location and position just above the Tropic of Cancer, the area owes its warm, humid climate to the Gulf Stream, which moderates climate year-round. A typical summer day does not have temperatures below 75 °F (24 °C). Temperatures in the high 80s to low 90s (30-35 °C) accompanied by high humidity are often relieved by afternoon thunderstorms or a sea breeze that develops off the Atlantic Ocean, which then allow lower temperatures, although conditions still remain very muggy. During winter, humidity is significantly lower, allowing for cooler weather to develop. Average minimum temperatures during that time are around 59 °F (15 °C), rarely dipping below 40 °F (4 °C), and the equivalent maxima usually range between 65 and 75 °F (18-24 °C).

The 1997 Miami tornadoOfficially, Miami has only once recorded a triple-digit temperature, the all-time maximum being 100 °F (37.8 °C), set on July 21, 1942. However, extreme summer humidity often boosts the heat index to around 110 °F (43 °C). The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city of Miami was 32 °F (0 °C) on several occasions, but never dropping below. Miami has only once recorded snowfall, on January 20, 1977. Weather conditions for the area around Miami were recorded sporadically from 1839 until 1900, with many years-long gaps. A cooperative temperature and rainfall recording site was established in what is now downtown Miami in December, 1900. An official Weather Bureau Office was opened in Miami in June, 1911.[13]

Miami receives abundant rainfall, one of the highest among major U.S. cities. Most of this rainfall occurs from mid-May through early October. It receives annual rainfall of 58.6 inches (1488 mm)[14], whereas nearby Fort Lauderdale and Miami Beach receive 63.8 in (1621 mm) and 48.3 in (1227 mm), respectively, which demonstrates the high local variability in rainfall rates. Hurricane season officially runs from June 1 through November 30, although hurricanes can develop beyond those dates. The most likely time for Miami to be hit is during the peak of the Cape Verde season which is mid August through the end of September.[15] Due to its location between two major bodies of water known for tropical activity, Miami is also statistically the most likely major city in the world to be struck by a hurricane, trailed closely by Nassau, Bahamas, and Havana, Cuba. Despite this, the city has been fortunate in not having a direct hit by a hurricane since Hurricane Cleo in 1964.[16] However, many other hurricanes have affected the city, including Betsy in 1965, Andrew in 1992, Irene in 1999, and Hurricanes Katrina and Wilma in 2005. In addition, a tropical depression in October of 2000 passed over the city, causing record rainfall and flooding. Locally, the storm is credited as the No Name Storm of 2000, though the depression went on to become Tropical Storm Leslie upon entering the Atlantic Ocean.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Avg high °F (°C) 76
(24) 77
(25) 80
(26) 83
(28) 86
(30) 88
(31) 89
(31) 90
(32) 88
(31) 85
(29) 80
(26) 77
(25) 83
(28)
Avg low temperature °F (°C) 60
(15) 61
(16) 64
(17) 68
(20) 72
(22) 75
(23) 76
(24) 76
(24) 76
(24) 72
(22) 66
(18) 61
(16) 69
(20)
Rainfall in. (cm) 2.0
(5) 2.1
(5) 2.4
(6) 3.0
(7) 5.9
(14) 8.8
(22) 6.0
(15) 7.8
(19) 8.5
(21) 7.0
(17) 3.1
(7) 1.8
(4) 58.5
(148)
Source: Weatherbase

[edit] Economy

The heart of Downtown Miami as seen on February 2, 2007. The ongoing construction
throughout the city, as depicted here, has inspired popular opinion suggesting Miami has become a prime example of "manhattanization". Right of center in this image is the Freedom Tower, a historic landmark.
Fireworks display over downtown Miami on American Independence Day, 7-4-07Miami is one of the country's most important financial centers. It is the major center of regional commerce, and boasts a strong international business community. According to the ranking of world cities undertaken by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group & Network (GaWC) and based on the level of presence of global corporate service organizations, Miami is considered a "Gamma World City."

Because of its proximity to Latin America, Miami serves as the headquarters of Latin American operations for over 1400 multinational corporations, including American Airlines, Cisco, Disney, Exxon, FedEx, Microsoft, Oracle, SBC Communications, Sony, and Visa International. Several large companies are headquartered in or around Miami, including but not limited to: Alienware, AutoNation, Bacardi, Brightstar Corporation, Burger King, Carnival Cruise Lines, Citrix Systems, DHL, Norwegian Cruise Lines, Royal Caribbean Cruise Lines, Ryder Systems, and Spirit Airlines. Miami International Airport and the Port of Miami are among the nation's busiest ports of entry, especially for cargo from South America and the Caribbean. Additionally, downtown Miami has the largest concentration of international banks in the country. Miami was also the host city of the 2003 Free Trade Area of the Americas negotiations, and is one of the leading candidates to become the trading bloc's headquarters. This effort has been guided by Florida FTAA.

Tourism is also an important industry: the beaches of Greater Miami draw visitors from across the country and around the world, and the Art Deco nightclub district in South Beach (in Miami Beach) is widely regarded as one of the most glamorous in the world. However, it is important to note that Miami Beach is not a part of the city of Miami. Even major TV networks sometimes forget this, as when Good Morning America visited Miami Beach and Charles Gibson thanked the mayor of Miami (but he was standing next to the mayor of Miami Beach). In addition to these roles, Miami is also an industrial center, especially for stone quarrying and warehousing.

Miami is the home to the National Hurricane Center and the headquarters of the United States Southern Command, responsible for military operations in Central and South America.

Miami has also served as host venue for legendary legal proceedings, most notably the astounding $145 Billion verdict leveled against the nation's 5 largest cigarette manufacturers. This case was a class action on behalf of all afflicted Florida smokers and their families, represented by a prominent and successful Miami-raised husband and wife legal team, Stanley and Susan Rosenblatt.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2004, Miami had the third highest incidence of family incomes below the federal poverty line in the United States, making it the third poorest city in the USA, ahead only by Detroit, Michigan(ranked #1) and El Paso, Texas (ranked #2.) In 2002, Miami had the highest poverty rate.

Miami is also one of the least affordable places to live, with 69% of its residents spending at least 42.8% of their household income on home ownership. Miami ranks first among least affordable cities for home ownership.[17]

As of 2005, the Miami area is witnessing its largest real estate boom since the 1920s. The newly created Midtown Miami, having well over a hundred approved construction projects is an example of this.[18]

See also: List of foreign consulates in Miami.

[edit] People and culture

[edit] Population
Historical populations
Census Pop. %±
1990 358,548 –
2000 362,470 1.1%
Est. 2006 404,048 [19] 11.5%

A map of Miami from 1955
Authentic Cuban dish of ropa vieja (shredded flank steak in a tomato sauce base), black beans, yellow rice, plantains and fried yuca with beer.Miami is the 43rd most populous city in the U.S. The metropolitan area, which includes Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties, with a combined population of more than 5.4 million people, ranks seventh in the United States behind Houston and is the largest metropolitan area in the Southeastern United States. As of the census of 2000, there were 362,470 people, 134,198 households, and 83,336 families residing in the city. The population density was 10,160.9/mi² (3,923.5/km²), making Miami one of the more densely populated cities in the country. There were 148,388 housing units at an average density of 4,159.7/mi² (1,606.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city is as follows:

66.6% White
22.3% African American
0.2% Native American
0.7% Asian
less than 0.1% Pacific Islander
5.4% from other races
and 4.7% from two or more races
65.8% of the population were Latino of any race.[20]
Non-Hispanic whites make up 11.8% of the city's population.[21]
In terms of national origin and/or ethnic origin, the city is 34.1% Cuban, 22.3% African American, 5.6% Nicaraguan, 5.0% Haitian, 3.6% Puerto Rican and 3.3% Honduran. In 2004, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) ranked Miami first in terms of percentage of residents born outside of the country it is located in (59%), followed by Toronto (43%).

There were 134,198 households out of which 26.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.6% were married couples living together, 18.7% have a female head of household with no husband present, and 37.9% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.25.

The age distribution was 21.7% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 30.3% from 25 to 44, 22.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 98.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $23,483, and the median income for a family was $27,225. Males had a median income of $24,090 versus $20,115 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,128. About 23.5% of families and 28.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 38.2% of those under age 18 and 29.3% of those age 65 or over.

Based on the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports Program, Miami ranks as the second most dangerous metropolitan area in the United States, based on the number of murders, rapes, robberies, aggravated assaults, burglaries and motor vehicle thefts that have occurred in the metropolitan area. The city proper ranks 14th.[22]

Miami's explosive population growth in recent years has been driven by internal migration from other parts of the country as well as by immigration. Greater Miami is regarded as a cultural melting pot, while still maintaining some of their cultural traits. The overall culture of Miami and Miami-Dade are heavily influenced by its large population of ethnic Latin Americans and cultures from Caribbeans from islands such as Jamaica, The Bahamas, Cuba and more (many of whom spoke Spanish or Haitian Creole).

[edit] Languages
A wide variety of languages are commonly spoken throughout the city. The City of Miami has three official languages: English, Spanish, and Haitian Creole (French Creole).

As of 2000, speakers of Spanish as their first language accounted for 66.75% of residents, while the mother tongue of English was spoken by 25.45%, French Creole made up 5.20%, and French comprised 0.76% of the population.[23]

Other languages that were spoken throughout the city include Portuguese at 0.41%, German at 0.18%, Italian at 0.16%, Arabic at 0.15%, Chinese at 0.11%, and Greek at 0.08% of the population. Miami also has one of the largest percentage populations in the U.S. that have residents who spoke first languages other than English at home (74.54%.)[24]

Today there are sizable permanent resident and undocumented populations of Argentines, Bahamians, Brazilians, Canadians, Chileans, Chinese, Colombians, Cubans, Dominicans, French, German, Greeks, Haitians, Hondurans, Jamaicans, Indians, Italians, Mexicans, Nicaraguans, Russians, Trinidadians and Tobagonians, Turks, South Africans, and Venezuelans, as well as a sizeable Puerto Rican population throughout the metropolitan area. While commonly thought of as mainly a city of Hispanic and Caribbean immigrants, the Miami area is home to large French, French Canadian, German, Italian, and Russian communities. The communities have grown to a prominent place in Miami and its suburbs, establishing area neighbourhoods such as Little Haiti, Little Havana, Little Managua, and Little San Juan.

[edit] Media
Miami is served by two major English-language newspapers, The Miami Herald and South Florida Sun-Sentinel, as well as two major Spanish-language newspapers, El Nuevo Herald and Diario Las Americas.The Miami Herald is Miami's primary newspaper with over a million readers focusing mainly on issues that affect the Miami and Miami-Dade area. It also has news bureaus in Broward County, Monroe County, and Nassau, Bahamas. It publishes daily Monroe County, Nassau, and International Editions along with the daily Miami-Dade edition.

Miami is the 12th largest radio market and the 17th largest television market in the U.S. Television stations serving the Miami area include WAMI (Telefutura), WBFS (My Network TV), WSFL (The CW), WFOR (CBS), WHFT (TBN), WLTV (Univision), WPLG (ABC), WPXM (ION), WSCV (Telemundo), WSVN (FOX), WTVJ (NBC), WPBT (PBS), WLRN (also PBS) and WSBS Mega TV

See also: List of radio stations in Florida

[edit] Sports
Miami professional sports teams Club Sport League Venue League Championships
Miami Dolphins Football National Football League Dolphin Stadium Super Bowl (2)

(VII 1972 - defeated Washington Redskins, 14-7 [being the first and only undefeated team in an NFL season]
VIII 1973 - defeated Minnesota Vikings, 24-7)

Florida Panthers Hockey National Hockey League BankAtlantic Center none
Miami Heat Basketball National Basketball Association AmericanAirlines Arena NBA Finals

(2006 - defeated Dallas Mavericks, series 4-2)

Florida Marlins Baseball Major League Baseball; NL Dolphin Stadium World Series (2)

(1997 - defeated Cleveland Indians, series 4-3;)
(2003 - defeated New York Yankees, series 4-2)

Sony Ericcson Open[1] Tennis ATP Key Biscayne none
Miami FC Soccer United Soccer Leagues Tropical Park Stadium none
Miami Tropics Basketball American Basketball Association Miami Arena none

The Miami Orange bowl
The American Airlines Arena during 2004 playoffsThe Miami Heat is the only major league team that plays its games in Miami's city limits. The team won the 2006 NBA Finals, winning the series 4-2 over the Dallas Mavericks. The Miami Dolphins and the Florida Marlins both play their games in the suburb of Miami Gardens. The Orange Bowl, a member of the Bowl Championship Series, hosts their college football championship games at Dolphin Stadium. The stadium has also hosted the Super Bowl; the Miami metro area has hosted the game a total of nine times (four Super Bowls in Dolphin Stadium, including Super Bowl XLI, five at the Miami Orange Bowl), tying New Orleans for the most games. Miami FC, Florida's only professional soccer team, plays at Tropical Park in Miami. Miami signed world famed soccer player Romario in March 2006 to a one year deal, and possibly longer. The Florida Panthers NHL team plays in neighboring Broward County, Florida at the BankAtlantic Center in the city of Sunrise. Miami is also the home of the Florida International University Golden Panthers at FIU Stadium and the University of Miami Hurricanes at the Miami Orange Bowl. Miami is also home to Paso Fino horses, where competitions are held at Tropical Park Equestrian Center.

A number of defunct teams were located in Miami, including the Miami Floridians (ABA), Miami Matadors (ECHL), Miami Manatees (WHA2), Miami Gatos (NASL), Miami Screaming Eagles (WHA), Miami Seahawks (AAFC), Miami Sol (WNBA), Miami Toros (NASL), Miami Tropics (SFL), and the Miami Hooters (Arena Football League). The Miami Fusion, a defunct Major League Soccer team played at Lockhart Stadium in nearby Broward County.

Professional wrestlers living in Miami include Hulk Hogan, Carlos Colón, Jr., Hazem Ali, Antonio Banks and The Rock.

See also: U.S. cities with teams from four major sports

[edit] Education
See also: Miami-Dade County Public Schools
Miami is served by Miami-Dade County Public Schools, which is the largest school district in Florida and the fourth largest in the United States. As of February 15, 2006 it has a student enrollment of 414,128. The district is also the largest minority public school system in the country, with 52% of its students being of Hispanic origin, 25% African American, and 6% non-white of other minorities. M-DCPS is also one of a few public school districts in the United States to offer optional bilingual education. Miami also has several Catholic and Jewish private schools throughout the area.

The city ranks second-to-last in people over 18 with a high school diploma, with 47% of the population not having that degree. [25]

Colleges and universities in the city proper:

Florida International University Metropolitan Center in Downtown Miami (Public)
Miami-Dade College (Public)
Miami International University of Art and Design (Private)
Other colleges and universities in the county:

Florida International University (Public)
University of Miami (Private)
Barry University (Roman Catholic)
Florida Memorial University (Private/Historically Black)
St. Thomas University (Roman Catholic)
Johnson and Wales University (Private)

[edit] Transportation

[edit] Air travel
Miami International Airport, one of the busiest international airports in the world, is the main airport serving the Miami metropolitan area, catering to over 35 million passengers a year. Identifiable locally, as well as several worldwide authorities, as MIA or KMIA, the airport is a major hub and the single largest international gateway for American Airlines, the world's largest passenger air carrier. Miami International is the United States' third largest international port of entry for foreign air passengers (behind New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport and Los Angeles International Airport), and is the seventh largest such gateway in the world. The airport's extensive international route network includes non-stop flights to over seventy international cities in North and South America, Europe, and the Middle East. Alternatively, nearby Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport (FLL) also serves the metropolitan area, and statistically handles more passengers originating or terminating their travel in South Florida.

Miami's busy port as seen from Miami Beach showing 6 cruise ships docked 3/25/2007. Photo: Marc Averette
[edit] Seaports
Miami is home to the Port of Miami, the largest cruise ship port in the world. In 2005, the port served 3,605,201 passengers. Additionally, the port is one of the nation's busiest cargo ports, importing nearly ten million tons of cargo annually. Among North American ports, it ranks second only to the Port of South Louisiana in New Orleans in terms of cargo tonnage imported/exported from Latin America. The port is on 518 acres and has 7 passenger terminals. The top port imports are cargo, stone/clay/cement/tile/bricks/concrete, and alcoholic beverages. The most common exports of the Port of Miami are cargo, paper/newsprints/towels, and textiles. China number 1 import country of the port, and Hondoras is the number 1 export country. Eight cruise lines sail from the port of Miami: Carnival Cruise Lines, Celebrity Cruises, Costa Cruises, Crystal Cruises, Norwegian Cruise Line, Oceania Cruises, Royal Caribbean International, and Windjammer Barefoot Cruises.[26]

[edit] Public transportation
Further information: Miami Public Transportation

The Miami MetrorailLocal public transportation includes Metrobus, Metromover, and Metrorail—an elevated rapid transit system—each operated by Miami-Dade Transit. Furthermore, Tri-Rail, a suburban rail system, connects the major cities and airports of the South Florida metropolitan area. Several transit expansion projects are being funded by a transit development sales tax surcharge throughout Miami-Dade County. The Metrobus system is also an option for those looking to reach destinations not served by the main transit lines. A new light rail system is proposed and is called BayLink. BayLink will connect Downtown Miami with the South Beach district of Miami Beach.

[edit] Road and rail
Miami is the southern terminus of Amtrak's Atlantic Coast services, with its final station located in the suburb of Hialeah, Florida.

Miami-Dade County is served by four Interstate Highways (I-75, I-95, I-195, I-395) and several U.S. Highways including U.S. Route 1, U.S. Route 27, U.S. Route 41, and U.S. Route 441. For information on the street grid, see Miami-Dade County, Florida#Street grid. Some of the major Florida State Roads (and their common names) serving the county are:

SR 112 (Airport Expressway) Downtown to MIA
SR 821 (The HEFT or Homestead Extension of the Florida Turnpike: SR 91/Miami Gardens to U.S. Route 1/Florida City)
SR 826 (Palmetto Expressway) Golden Glades Interchange to U.S. Route 1/Kendall
SR 836 (Dolphin Expressway) Downtown to Turnpike via MIA
SR 874 (Don Shula Expressway) 826/Bird Road to 878
SR 878 (Snapper Creek Expressway) Kendall to Turnpike/Homestead
SR 924 (Gratigny Parkway) Miami Lakes to Opa-locka
For the second year in a row, Miami has been named as having the rudest drivers in the United States. [2]

[edit] Miami in popular culture

Portion of the Miami skyline showing the Bank of America tower lit hot neon pink, one of the colors that has become the epitome of Miami's fashion nostalgia.
Photo: Marc AveretteSee also: Movies made in Miami
There are many television shows set in Miami. The controversial Emmy winning drama Nip/Tuck, CBS's CSI: Miami and Showtime's Dexter all take place in Miami. The Jackie Gleason Show was taped in Miami Beach from 1964 to 1970. The NBC show Good Morning, Miami was fictionally based around the workings of a Miami television station. The popular sitcoms The Golden Girls and Empty Nest, as well as the detective series Surfside 6 were also based in Miami Beach. In the 1980s, no show rivaled Miami Vice in revitalizing the city's image as the 'mecca of cool' for the MTV Generation. Keeping with its modern music tradition, the city has recently hosted the 2004 and 2005 MTV Video Music Awards. The TLC reality show Miami Ink is set in the city. Some other recent reality shows in Miami include Animal Planet's Miami Animal Police and MTV's 8th & Ocean and The Real World: Miami.

Video games Grand Theft Auto: Vice City and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories take place in Vice City a fictional city inspired by Miami, including some of the same architecture and geography. There were also people and gangsters in the game who speak Haitian Creole and Spanish.

Miami is a center for Latin television and film production. As a result, many Spanish-language programs are filmed in the many television production studios, predominantly in Hialeah and Doral. This includes gameshows, variety shows, news programs, and telenovelas like Morelia, La Mujer de Mi Vida etc. Arguably, the most famous being Sábado Gigante, a Saturday night variety show seen throughout the United States, South America and Europe, and the daytime talk shows Cristina Saralegui and El Gordo y la Flaca.

Miami has acted as the backdrop for several movies, including There's Something About Mary, Wild Things, Ace Ventura: Pet Detective, 2 Fast 2 Furious, Bad Boys & Bad Boys II, Transporter 2, The Birdcage, True Lies, Reno 911!: Miami, Miami Vice (based on the 1980s television series of the same name), Cocaine Cowboys, 1983's Scarface, and the James Bond films Goldfinger, Thunderball, and Casino Royale.

[edit] Music
Miami music is varied. Latin American Immigrants brought the conga and rumba to Miami from their homelands instantly popularizing it in American culture, as well as salsa music, bachata, merengue, vallenato, and most recently, reggaeton. West Indians and Caribbean people have brought reggae, soca, kompa, zouk, calypso, and steel pan to the area as well.

In the early-1970s, the Miami disco sound came to life with TK Records, featuring the music of KC and the Sunshine Band, with such hits as "Get Down Tonight", "(Shake, Shake, Shake) Shake Your Booty" and "That's the Way (I Like It)"; and the Latin-American disco group, Foxy (band), with their hit singles "Get Off" and "Hot Number". Miami-area natives George McCrae and Teri DeSario were also popular music artists during the 1970s disco era.

Miami-influenced, Gloria Estefan and the Miami Sound Machine, hit the popular music scene with their Cuban-oriented sound and had huge hits in the 1980s with "Conga" and "Bad Boys".

Notable hip-hop artists from Miami consist of 2 Live Crew, Dre, J.T. Money (of Poison Clan), Luther Campbell, Jin tha MC,Poison Clan, DJ Khaled, Jacki-O, Pretty Ricky, Deuce Poppi, Trick Daddy, Trina, Pitbull, Rick Ross, Smitty, and the late DJ Uncle Al. Producers include Cool & Dre, The Diaz Brothers, Signature, Red Spyda. Will Smith based an entire song called "Miami" in his album "Big Willie Style"

Latin megastar Shakira did five concerts, from her US leg of the Oral Fixation Tour, in Miami's American Airlines Arena in 2006. December 6 was even declared "Shakira Day" by the mayor and she was given the key to the city.

Miami is also considered a "hot spot" for Freestyle, a style of dance music popular in the 80's and 90's heavily influenced by Electro, hip-hop, and disco. Many popular Freestyle acts such as Pretty Tony, Debbie Deb, Stevie B, and Exposé, originated in Miami. Indie/folk acts Cat Power[27] and Iron & Wine[28] are based in the city, while alternative hip hop artist Sage Francis, electro artist Uffie, and the electroclash duo Avenue D were born in Miami, but musically based elsewhere. Also, punk band Against All Authority is from Miami, and metal band Nonpoint is from neighboring Fort Lauderdale.

Miami is also home to a vibrant music scene and hosts the Winter Music Conference and many electronica music-themed celebrations and festivals. Along with neighboring Miami Beach, Miami is home to some famous nightclubs, such as Space, Mansion, Twilo, Ink, Cameo,and Opium Garden, and is also the site of the annual Winter Music Conference - the largest dance music event in the world. The city is known to be part of clubland, along with places such as Mykonos, Ibiza and Ayia Napa.

X2: Wolverine's Revenge

2007-08-04T22:32:00.000-07:00

X2:Wolverine's Revenge

Developer(s) GenePool Software
Publisher(s) Activision
Release date(s) May 1, 2003
Genre(s) Third-person action
Mode(s) Single player
Rating(s) ESRB: Teen, PEGI: 3+
Platform(s) Xbox, GameCube, PS2, GBA, PC
X2: Wolverine's Revenge is a video game based around the movie X2: X-Men United. Released in 2003 to coincide with the release date of the film, Revenge was the first title to feature Wolverine in a starring role since 1994. The player helps Wolverine claw his way past the heavily guarded areas of Department H to piece together fragmented clues to Wolverine's murky past and, more importantly, to save his life. The game was released as a promotional tie-in to X2 but featured an original story by famed comic book writer Larry Hama, and can't be considered a bridge between the first X-Men film and second. Wolverine has 48 hours to find an antidote to a deadly Shiva virus circulating in his bloodstream and the clues point to Department H's Weapon X facility, the Canadian fortress where he was created.

[edit] Gameplay
The action is played from a third-person perspective as players fight a number of armored soldiers, mutant creatures, and archenemies such as Sabretooth, Magneto, Wendigo, and Juggernaut. While Professor X is able to assist Wolverine with powers of telepathy, the surly comic book hero must ultimately carry out his adventure alone. To that end, players must tap into Wolverine's unique talents to overcome all manner of obstacles. Wolverine will be able to hunt and track his prey using his heightened sense of smell and ability to detect body heat. As Wolverine makes his way through the military compounds, he will need to avoid defense systems and guards, and find ways into locked rooms to discover the information he needs to survive.

When engaged in combat, Wolverine can retract and release his adamantium claws at any time to perform slashing attacks, aerial combos, and a number of different throws. The strike moves used in battle are the Combat Strike Moves, which initiate a short cut-scene where Wolverine attacks the enemy.

In addition to Combat Strikes, there are special Stealth Strikes, Situation-Specific Strikes and Boss-Specific Strikes which become available at certain points in the game. Stealth Strikes are used to take out enemies silently. For example, Wolverine can do a wall-hug to creep up on an enemy and stab him before he can sound the alarm.

Wolverine's atypical healing ability allows him to withstand punishment that would kill an average human being, but he can become wounded over time. Sustaining major injuries triggers a feral rage, imbuing Wolverine with
X2: Wolverine's Revenge is a video game based around the movie X2: X-Men United. Released in 2003 to coincide with the release date of the film, Revenge was the first title to feature Wolverine in a starring role since 1994. The player helps Wolverine claw his way past the heavily guarded areas of Department H to piece together fragmented clues to Wolverine's murky past and, more importantly, to save his life. The game was released as a promotional tie-in to X2 but featured an original story by famed comic book writer Larry Hama, and can't be considered a bridge between the first X-Men film and second. Wolverine has 48 hours to find an antidote to a deadly Shiva virus circulating in his bloodstream and the clues point to Department H's Weapon X facility, the Canadian fortress where he was created.

[edit] Gameplay
The action is played from a third-person perspective as players fight a number of armored soldiers, mutant creatures, and archenemies such as Sabretooth, Magneto, Wendigo, and Juggernaut. While Professor X is able to assist Wolverine with powers of telepathy, the surly comic book hero must ultimately carry out his adventure alone. To that end, players must tap into Wolverine's unique talents to overcome all manner of obstacles. Wolverine will be able to hunt and track his prey using his heightened sense of smell and ability to detect body heat. As Wolverine makes his way through the military compounds, he will need to avoid defense systems and guards, and find ways into locked rooms to discover the information he needs to survive.

When engaged in combat, Wolverine can retract and release his adamantium claws at any time to perform slashing attacks, aerial combos, and a number of different throws. The strike moves used in battle are the Combat Strike Moves, which initiate a short cut-scene where Wolverine attacks the enemy.

In addition to Combat Strikes, there are special Stealth Strikes, Situation-Specific Strikes and Boss-Specific Strikes which become available at certain points in the game. Stealth Strikes are used to take out enemies silently. For example, Wolverine can do a wall-hug to creep up on an enemy and stab him before he can sound the alarm.

Wolverine's atypical healing ability allows him to withstand punishment that would kill an average human being, but he can become wounded over time. Sustaining major injuries triggers a feral rage, imbuing Wolverine with greater strength and the ferocity to take on multiple foes at once. Veteran actor Mark Hamill provides the voice-over for Wolverine, while Patrick Stewart reprises his film role as Professor X.

[edit] Story
The story begins in 1964. Logan, when he was a normal mutant human, was walking along a backstreet, when behind him come some Weapon X Facility hunters. They try to catch Logan so they can take him to the facility. Logan tries to defend himself but he is been shot by a sleeping gun. Logan is taken to the Facility and the adamantium skeleton is grafted onto him.

Soon after, he escapes from the experiment chamber and tries to get outside. The professor calls him an animal but Logan says Not animal! , showing he has still retained his humanity. Wolverine tries to get to the Professor to confront him but he is stopped by Sabretooth. Wolverine defeats Sabretooth and he finds the Professor and confronts him.

Later, in the present, when Logan has become an X-Man, Professor X tells Logan that he has a virus in him that will kill him soon, if the cure is not found. He tells Logan to try to find the cure in the Weapon X Facility. Logan uses a private plane to get to the Weapon X Facility. However the plane is shot. He survives the plane crash and he sneaks his way into the base. On the way in he is ambushed by a group of GIs. The sound of gunfire starts and Wolverine is surprised that he's not shot. He then sees another GI who shot down the ambushers. When Wolverine asks him why he let him live the GI states, "Maybe it's not your time to die. ..just yet." Wolverine examines him a moment and he asks, "You're not quite human, are you?" To which the GI states, "You're one to talk." As he walks away.

Later, Wolverine fights his way to a cavern where the spirit of the Wendigo lives. Wolverine fights with Wendigo and wins. Wendigo gets up and throws Logan out of the cavern where he lands on snow. Logan sees a Weapon X truck and jumps on it. Logan reaches the Weapon X Facility and then fights Sabretooth again. Sabretooth goes defeated and gives Wolverine the Part B of the virus cure and tells Logan that the Part A can be found in The Void Facility (a mutant prison).

Logan goes to the facility where he sees Colossus who lets him enter the facility. While Logan is fighting his way on the Facility, Sabretooth comes to the Void and releases 3 mutants (Omega Red, Magneto and Juggernaut). Meanwhile, Logan finds Dr. Cornelius and Carol Hines. Cornelius gives Logan the formula of Part A of the cure. However, when Logan reaches the roof, he is faced by Juggernaut. After Logan defeats him, Colossus gets him back in the prison. Logan destroys the Void Shield and escapes to find and defeat Magneto.

After Logan escapes, May Deuce the Mutant Hunter Boss comes to the Void. Later, Logan finds Magneto in an electricity plant. Logan tries to stop Magneto's moves but he has to kill all the Mutant Hunters at the same time. Logan defeats Magneto and wants to go home.

When Logan is going home, a helicopter comes to him. In the helicoter is May Deuce. She thanks Logan because he defeated Magneto and offers to take him to the Xavier Institute. But when the helicopter reaches the top of a building, May Deuce throws Wolverine on the roof. Logan sees Lady Deathstrike and he realizes that the pilot, the Army GI, and May Deuce were some of Lady Deathstrike's robots, who were to direct Wolverine to her so she could kill him. Wolverine defeats Deathstrike and reaches a helicopter land platform where she follows him. Logan throws Lady Deathstrike off the roof and Rogue comes with the virus cure. Wolverine drinks it and goes home. Sabretooth finds Lady Deathstrike. Sabretooth takes her and leaves. Meanwhile, Apocalypse and Mr. Sinister watch every move from Wolverine. Wolverine lies on his bed and then suddenly realises that he hasn't found and defeated Omega Red.

X-plane (aircraft)

2007-08-04T22:30:00.000-07:00

This article is about experimental aircraft. For similarly named items, see Xplane.

Bell X-1
X-3 Stiletto
Bell X-5The X-planes are a series of experimental United States aircraft (and some rockets) used for testing of new technologies and usually kept highly secret during development.

The first of these, the Bell X-1, became well-known as the first plane to break the sound barrier, which it did in 1947. Later X-planes yielded important research results, but only the North American X-15 rocket plane of the early 1960s achieved comparable fame. X-planes 7 through 12 were actually missiles, and some other vehicles were unpiloted. Most X-planes are not expected to ever go into full-scale production, and usually only a few are produced. One exception is the Lockheed Martin X-35, which competed against the Boeing X-32 to become the Joint Strike Fighter.

As of 2006, new X-plane projects are still underway. The designation X-52 was skipped to avoid potential confusion with the operational B-52 Stratofortress strategic bomber.

[edit] In fiction
Many movies, television series and video games have featured fictional X planes, with both feasible and currently infeasible designs. For instance, the Stargate TV series feature X-301, X-302, X-303, and X-304 spacecraft. The movie Armageddon featured two top-secret space shuttles called the X-71. The film Rocketship X-M was inspired by the X-series, featuring the first manned rocket to the moon.

[edit] See also
Experimental aircraft
List of experimental aircraft
List of military aircraft of the United States
Skunk works

[edit] References
Jay Miller, The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45. Motorbooks International, 2001.
Mach 2 DVD from rocket.aero

[edit] External links
Early X-planes
American X-Vehicles: An Inventory X-1 to X-50, SP-2000-4531 - June 2003; NASA online PDF Monograph
X-15 Videos by NASA
v • d • eAmerican X-planes[hide]
X-1 · X-2 · X-3 · X-4 · X-5 · X-6 · X-7 · X-

F-35 Lightning II

2007-08-04T22:25:00.000-07:00

F-35 Lightning II

The F-35 Lightning II takes off for its first flight at Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas, 15 December 2006.
Type Multirole fighter
Manufacturers Lockheed Martin Aeronautics
Northrop Grumman
BAE Systems
Maiden flight 15 December 2006
Introduction 2011 (scheduled)
Status Under development/pre-production
Primary users United States Air Force
United States Navy
United States Marine Corps
Royal Air Force / Royal Navy
Produced 2003-present
Unit cost F-35A: US$48 million
F-35B: US$62 million
F-35C: US$63 million[1]
Developed from Lockheed Martin X-35
The F-35 Lightning II is a single-seat, single-engine, stealth-capable military strike fighter, a multi-role aircraft that can perform close air support, tactical bombing, and air-to-air combat. The F-35 descended from the X-35 of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Its development is being funded by the United States, the United Kingdom, and other partner governments. It is being designed and built by an aerospace industry team led by Lockheed Martin and major partners BAE Systems and Northrop Grumman. Demonstrator aircraft flew in 2000;[2] a production model first took flight on 15 December 2006.[3]

[edit] Development

[edit] JSF Program history
Main article: Joint Strike Fighter competition

Original F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Logo
Boeing X-32 (left) and Lockheed Martin X-35 prior to down-select in 2001, where the X-35 was chosen. DoD photo
F-35 Lightning II/JSF Logo
[edit] Requirement
The JSF program was created to replace various aircraft while keeping development, production, and operating costs down. This was pursued by building three variants of one aircraft, sharing 80% of their parts:

F-35A, conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant.
F-35B, short-takeoff and vertical-landing (STOVL) variant.
F-35C, carrier-based variant.

[edit] Origins and X-32 vs. X-35
The Joint Strike Fighter evolved out of several requirements for a common fighter to replace existing types. The actual JSF development contract was signed on 16 November 1996.

The contract for System Development and Demonstration (SDD) was awarded on 26 October 2001 to Lockheed Martin, whose X-35 beat the Boeing X-32. DoD officials and the UK Minister of Defence Procurement said the X-35 consistently outperformed the X-32, although both met or exceeded requirements. The designation of the fighter as "F-35" came as a surprise to Lockheed, which had been referring to the aircraft in-house by the designation "F-24."[4]

[edit] Naming
On 7 July 2006, the U.S. Air Force officially announced the name of the F-35: Lightning II,[5] in honor of Lockheed's World War II-era twin-prop P-38 Lightning and the Cold War-era jet, the English Electric Lightning. English Electric's aircraft division was incorporated into BAC, a predecessor of F-35 partner BAE Systems. Other names previously listed as contenders were Kestrel, Phoenix, Piasa, Black Mamba and Spitfire II. Lightning II was also an early company name for the aircraft that became the F-22 Raptor.

[edit] Design

The F-35A being towed to its inauguration ceremony on 7 July 2006The F-35 appears to be a smaller, slightly more conventional, one-engine sibling of the sleeker, two-engine F-22 Raptor, and indeed, drew elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, a 1972 VTOL aircraft designed for the Sea Control Ship.[6]

Lockheed teamed with the Yakovlev Design Bureau in the 1990s, which has led to some speculation about ties with the quite different Yakovlev Yak-141 'Freestyle'.[7]

Stealth technology makes the aircraft hard to detect as it approaches short-range tracking radar.

Some improvements over current-generation fighter aircraft are:

Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology;
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and onboard sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes;
High speed data networking including IEEE-1394b [8] and Fibre Channel [9]
Low life-cycle costs.[citation needed]
Although helmet-mounted displays have already been integrated into some fourth-generation fighters such as the Swedish JAS 39 Gripen, the F-35 will be the first in which helmet-mounted displays replace a head-up display altogether.[10]

[edit] Sensors

EOTS under the nose of a mockup of the F-35.The main sensor on board the F-35 is its AN/APG-81 AESA-radar, designed by Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems.[11] It is augmented by the Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) mounted under the nose of the aircraft, designed by Lockheed Martin and BAE.[12] Further electro-optical sensors are distributed over the aircraft as part of the AN/AAS-37 system which acts as missile warning system and can aid in navigation and night operations.

[edit] Thrust-to-weight ratio
The F-35B variant was in danger of missing performance requirements because it weighed too much — reportedly, by 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg) or 8%. In response, Lockheed Martin added engine thrust and shed more than a ton by thinning the aircraft's skin; shrinking the weapons bay and vertical tails; rerouting some thrust from the roll-post outlets to the main nozzle; and redesigning the wing-mate joint, portions of the electrical system, and the portion of the aircraft immediately behind the cockpit.[13]

The internal weapons are stored offline to the external air flow, which will complicate weapons certification testing.[citation needed]

[edit] Manufacturing responsibilities
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics is the prime contractor and performs aircraft final assembly, overall system integration, mission system, and provides forward fuselage, wings and flight controls system. Northrop Grumman provides Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, center fuselage, weapons bay, and arrestor gear. BAE Systems provides Aft fuselage and empennages, horizontal and vertical tails, crew life support and escape systems, Electronic warfare systems, fuel system, and Flight Control Software (FCS1). Alenia will perform final assembly for Italy, the Netherlands and probably all European aircraft. At the moment it's not decided if this model will be identical to the American one or if part of the avionics will be developed in Italy. [14]

[edit] Operational history

[edit] Testing
On 19 February 2006, the first F-35A (USAF version) was rolled out in Fort Worth, Texas. The aircraft underwent extensive ground testing at Naval Air Station Fort Worth Joint Reserve Base in fall 2006. On 15 September 2006 the first engine run of the F135 afterburning turbofan was conducted in an airframe, with the tests completed on 18 September after a static run with full afterburner. The engine runs were the first time that the F-35 was completely functional on its own power systems.[15] On 15 December 2006, the F-35 completed its maiden flight.

[edit] International participation
The primary customers and financial backers are the United States and the United Kingdom. Eight other nations are also funding the aircraft's development and will decide in 2007 whether to purchase it. Total development costs are estimated at more than US$40 billion (underwritten largely by the United States), while the purchase of an estimated 2,400 planes is expected to cost an additional US$200 billion.[16]

There are three levels of international participation. The levels generally reflect the financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. The United Kingdom is the sole 'Level 1' partner, contributing US$2.5 billion, about 10% of the development costs[17] under the 1995 Memorandum of Understanding that brought the UK into the project.[18] Level 2 partners are Italy, which is contributing US$1 billion; and the Netherlands, US$800 million. Level 3 partners are Canada, US$440 million; Turkey, US$175 million; Australia, US$144 million; Norway, US$122 million; and Denmark, US$110 million. Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants.[19]

Some of the partner countries have wavered in their public commitment to the JSF program, hinting or warning that unless they receive more subcontracts or technology transfer, they will forsake JSF for the Eurofighter Typhoon, Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale or simply upgrade their existing aircraft. Norway has several times threatened to put their support on hold unless substantial guarantees for an increased industrial share is provided. Despite this Norway has signed all the Memoranda of Understanding, including the latest one detailing the future production phase of the JSF program. They have, however, indicated that they will increase and strengthen their cooperation with both competitors of the JSF, the Typhoon and the Gripen. "[20]

[edit] United Kingdom
Main article: Joint Combat Aircraft
The United Kingdom plans to acquire versions of the F-35 for its Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy.

The UK became increasingly frustrated by a lack of US commitment to grant access to the technology that would allow the UK to maintain and upgrade its F-35s without US involvement. This is understood to relate mainly to the software of the vehicle. For five years, British officials sought an ITAR waiver to secure greater technology transfer. This request, which has the blessing of the Bush administration, has been repeatedly blocked by US Representative Henry Hyde, who says that the UK needs to tighten its laws protecting against the unauthorized transfer of the most advanced US technology to third parties.[21]

BAE Systems CEO Mike Turner complained that the US had denied his company access to the aircraft's source code. On 21 December 2005, an article in the Glasgow Herald quoted the chairman of the House of Commons Defence Select Committee as saying "the UK might have to consider whether to continue in the programme" if no access were granted.[22] Lord Drayson, Minister for Defence Procurement, took a firmer stance during a March 2006 visit to Washington: "We do expect the software technology transfer to take place. But if it does not take place we will not be able to purchase these aircraft," and he said there was a 'Plan B' if the deal fell through.[23] This may have been the development of a navalized Typhoon.[24]

On 27 May 2006, President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Tony Blair announced that "Both governments agree that the UK will have the ability to successfully operate, upgrade, employ, and maintain the Joint Strike Fighter such that the UK retains operational sovereignty over the aircraft."[25] Despite this, concerns were still expressed about the lack of technology transfer as late as December 2006. Nevertheless, on 12 December 2006, Lord Drayson signed an agreement which met the UK's demands for further participation, i.e., access to software source codes and operational sovereignty. The agreement allows "an unbroken British chain of command" for operation of the aircraft. Drayson said Britain would "not be required to have a US citizen in our own operational chain of command".[26] Drayson also said, however, that Britain is still considering an unspecified "Plan B" alternative to buying the Joint Strike Fighter.

On 25 July 2007, the Ministry of Defence confirmed that they have placed orders for two new aircraft carriers that will allow the purchase of the F-35B variant.[27]

[edit] Australia

Australian Minister for Defence Dr Brendan Nelson signing the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development Memorandum of Understanding in December 2006In May 2005, the Australian government announced that it would delay its planned 2006 decision on buying the JSF to 2008, and thus past the term of the present government. Australia, like the UK, has insisted it must have access to all software needed to modify and repair aircraft. Analysis conducted by the Royal Australian Air Force has determined that the F-35 "is the most suitable aircraft for Australia’s needs".[28]

There has been debate in Australia over whether the F-35 is the most suitable aircraft for the RAAF. Some media reports, lobby groups and politicians have raised doubts that the aircraft will be ready in time to replace the RAAF's aging fleet of General Dynamics F-111 strike aircraft and F/A-18 Hornet fighters. Some critics say the more expensive F-22 or the Eurofighter may be better choices, both offering better range, dogfighting capability, and supercruise at a cost that may not be much more than the F-35[29] — claims that as of July 2006 are being examined in a parliamentary inquiry.[30]

In a statement released in early August 2006, Australian Defence Minister Dr. Brendan Nelson revealed that whilst the F-35 still had governmental support, Australia is starting to investigate other possible aircraft should the F-35 prove to be unfeasible.[31] In October 2006 the deputy chief of the Air Force, Air Vice Marshal John Blackburn, publicly stated that the RAAF had ruled out the purchase of interim strike aircraft to cover any delays to the F-35 program and believed that the F-35 was suitable.[32] However, on 6 March 2007, Dr. Nelson announced the Australian Government would purchase 24 F/A-18F Super Hornets from Boeing to fill the gap left by the retiring F-111 strike bombers at a cost of potentially A$6 billion.[33] Nonetheless, Dr. Nelson says he continues to endorse Australia’s purchase of the F-35. Speaking on Australian television in March 2007, Dr. Nelson stated that 5% of the capability of the F-35 is classified, claiming that, "that's the five percent that really counts."[34]

On 13 December 2006, Minister Nelson signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development Memorandum of Understanding. This agreement provides the cooperative framework for the acquisition and support of the JSF over its life.[35] Australia is expected to purchase 100 F-35As at a cost of approximately $16 billion AUD.[36]

[edit] Turkey
On 12 July 2002, Turkey became the seventh international partner in the JSF Project, joining the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Canada, Denmark and Norway. On 25 January 2007, Turkey signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) for involvement in F-35 production. Turkey is expected to order 100 F-35A "CTOL/Air Force versions" at a reported cost of $11 billion.[37] It is reported that the aircraft will be produced under license in Turkey by Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI).

A Letter of Intent (LOI) was signed between TAI and Northrop Grumman ISS (NGISS) International on 6 February 2007. With the LOI, TAI becomes the second source for the F-35 Lightning II center fuselage during the JSF Signing. The number of center fuselages to be produced by TAI will be determined depending on the number of F-35s Turkey will procure and the number of F-35s to be produced worldwide. The LOI represents a potential value in excess of $3 billion.[citation needed]

[edit] Other nations

[edit] Israel
In 2003, Israel signed a letter of agreement, worth almost $20 million, to formally join the system development and demonstration (SDD) effort for the F-35 as a "security cooperation participant" (SCP).[38] The Israeli Air Force (IAF) stated in 2006 that the F-35 is a key part of IAF's recapitalization plans, and that Israel intends to buy over 100 F-35A fighters at an estimated cost of over $5 billion to replace their F-16s over time.[39] Israel was reinstated as a partner in the development of the F-35 on 31 July 2006, after Israeli participation was put on hold following the Chinese arms deal crisis.[40]

[edit] India
The F-35 is a potential offer to the Indian Air Force as of July 2007. This has been interpreted as part of a tactic to sell the F-16 as a multi-role fighters to the IAF.[41]

[edit] Variants
The F-35 is planned to be built in three different versions to suit the needs of its various users.

[edit] F-35A
The F-35A, the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant intended for the US Air Force and other air forces. It is the smallest, lightest F-35 version and is the only variant equipped with an internal gun, the GAU-12/U. This 25 mm cannon, a development of the 20 mm M61 Vulcan carried by USAF fighters since the F-104 Starfighter, is also carried by the USMC's AV-8B Harrier II.

The F-35A not only matches the F-16 in maneuverability, instantaneous and sustained high-g performance, but also outperforms it in stealth, payload, range on internal fuel, avionics, operational effectiveness, supportability and survivability.[citation needed] It also has an internal laser designator and infra-red sensors.

It is primarily intended to replace both the U.S. Air Force's F-16 Fighting Falcons and A-10 Thunderbolt IIs, beginning in 2011.

[edit] F-35B

X-35B lift fan; the VTOL propulsion system is designed and manufactured by Rolls-Royce plcThe F-35B is the short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) variant aircraft. The F-35B is similar in size to the Air Force F-35A, trading fuel volume for vertical flight systems. Like the AV-8 Harrier II, guns will be carried in a ventral pod. Vertical flight is by far the riskiest, and in the end, a decisive factor in design.

Instead of lift engines, or rotating nozzles on the engine fan and exhaust like the Pegasus-powered Harrier, the F-35B uses a vectoring cruise nozzle in the tail, i.e. the rear exhaust turns to deflect thrust down, and an innovative shaft-driven Lift Fan, patented by Lockheed Martin and developed by Rolls-Royce.[42] Somewhat like a turboprop built within the fuselage, engine shaft power is diverted forward via a clutch-and-bevel gearbox to a vertically mounted, contra-rotating lift fan located forward of the main engine in the center of the aircraft. Bypass air from the cruise engine turbofan exhausts through a pair of roll-post nozzles in the wings on either side of the fuselage, while the lift fan balances the vectoring cruise nozzle at the tail. This system is more similar to the Russian Yak-141 and German VJ 101D/E[43] than previous STOVL designs, such as the Harrier with thrust vectoring.

In effect, the F-35B power plant acts as a flow multiplier, much as a turbofan achieves efficiencies by moving unburned air at a lower velocity, and getting the same effect as the Harrier's huge, but supersonically impractical, main fan. Like lift engines, this added machinery is dead weight during flight, but increased lifting power increases takeoff payload by even more. The cool fan exhaust also reduces the harmful effects of hot, high-velocity air which can harm runway pavement or an aircraft carrier deck. Though potentially risky and complicated, it was made to work to the satisfaction of DOD officials.

During concept definition, two Lockheed airframes were flight-tested: the Lockheed X-35A (which was later converted into the X-35B), and the larger-winged X-35C.[44] The F-35 power plant is derived from Pratt & Whitney's F119 or GE Rolls Royce fighter team's F136, with the STOVL variant of the latter incorporating a Rolls-Royce Lift Fan module.

Arguably the most persuasive demonstration of the X-35's capability was the final qualifying Joint Strike Fighter flight trials, in which the X-35B STOVL aircraft took off in less than 500 feet (150 m), went supersonic, and landed vertically — a feat that Boeing's entry was unable to achieve.[45]

This variant is intended to replace the later derivatives of the Harrier Jump Jet, which was the world's first operational short takeoff / vertical landing fighter/ground attack aircraft. The RAF and Royal Navy will use this variant to replace the Harrier GR7/GR9s. The U.S. Marine Corps will use the F-35B to replace both its AV-8B Harrier II and F/A-18 Hornet fighters. The B variant is expected to be available beginning in 2012.

[edit] F-35C
The F-35C naval variant will have a larger, folding wing and larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, and stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier landings. The larger wing area provides increased range and payload, with twice the range on internal fuel compared with the F/A-18C Hornet, achieving much the same goal as the heavier F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.

The U.S. Navy intends to buy 480 F-35Cs to replace the F/A-18A, -B, -C, and -D Hornets, which replaced subsonic but long-ranged attack types such as the A-7 Corsair and A-6 Intruder. It will also serve as a stealthier complement to the Super Hornet[46]. On 27 June 2007, the carrier variant completed its Air System Critical Design Review (CDR). This allows the F-35C to go to Low Rate Initial Production. [47]

The C variant is expected to be available beginning in 2012.

[edit] Specifications (F-35 Lightning II)

The first of 15 pre-production F-35sNote: Some information is estimated.

Data from F-35 Program brief[48]

General characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 50 ft 6 in (15.37 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft 0 in (10.65 m)
Height: 17 ft 4 in (5.28 m)
Wing area: 459.6 ft² (42.7 m²)
Empty weight: 26,000 lb (12,000 kg)
Loaded weight: 44,400 lb (20,100 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 60,000 lb (27,200 kg)
Powerplant: 1× Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan
Dry thrust: 28,000 lbf[49] (128 kN)
Thrust with afterburner: 43,000 lbf (191 kN)
Secondary (High Performance), in development: 1× General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136 afterburning turbofan, >178 kN (40,000 lbf)
Lift fan (STOVL): 1× Rolls-Royce Lift System driven from either F135 or F136 power plant, 18,000 lbf (80 kN)
Performance
Maximum speed: >Mach 1.8 (1,200 mph, 1,931 km/h)
Range: ≈1,200 nmi (1,400 mi, 2,200 km) on internal fuel
Combat radius: 600 nmi (690 mi, 1,110 km)
Rate of climb: classified (not publicly available)
Wing loading: 91.4 lb/ft² (446 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight:

With full fuel: 0.968
With 50% fuel: 1.22[49]

F-35A and F-35C Armament
Weapons bay on a mockup of the F-35.Armament

1 × GAU-12/U 25 mm cannon — slated to be mounted internally with 180 rounds in the F-35A and fitted as an external pod with 220 rounds in the F-35B and F-35C.[citation needed]
Internally (current planned weapons for integration), up to four AIM-120 AMRAAM, AIM-9X Sidewinder or AIM-132 ASRAAM internally or two air-to-air and two air-to-ground weapons (up to two 2,000 lb weapons in A and C models; two 1000 lb weapons in the B model) in the bomb bays. These could be AMRAAM, the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) — up to 2,000 lb (910 kg), the Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), Small Diameter Bombs (SDB) — a maximum of four in each bay, the Brimstone anti-armor missiles, Cluster Munitions (WCMD) and High Speed Anti-Radiation Missiles (HARM). The MBDA Meteor air-to-air missile is currently being adapted to fit internally in the missile spots and may be integrated into the F-35.
At the expense of being more detectable by radar, many more missiles, bombs and fuel tanks can be attached on four wing pylons and two wingtip positions. The two wingtip pylons can only carry short-range air-to-air missiles (AIM-9s), while the Storm Shadow and Joint Air to Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) cruise missiles can be carried in addition to the stores already integrated. An air-to-air load of 12 AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is conceivable using internal and external weapons stations, as well as a configuration of six two thousand pound bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s.

[edit] Directed-energy weapons
Directed-energy weapons may be installed in conventional takeoff F-35 Lightning IIs, whose lack of a direct lift fan frees up about 100 ft³ (2.8 m³) of space with access to a drive shaft capable of delivering more than 27,000 hp (20 MW).[50][51] Some concepts, including solid state lasers and high-power microwave beams, may be nearing operational status.[52]

[edit] Popular culture
The first major film appearance of an F-35B was in Live Free or Die Hard (2007). The film used a combination of a full-scale model and CGI[53][54] to dramatize its hovering ability using the lift fan.

F-20 Tigershark

2007-08-04T22:23:00.000-07:00

Type Fighter aircraft
Manufacturer Northrop
Maiden flight 1982-08-30
Introduced n/a
Status Did not enter production
Number built 3
Program cost US$1,200,000,000
Developed from Northrop F-5
The Northrop F-20 Tigershark (initially F-5G) was a privately financed fighter aircraft, designed and built by Northrop in the USA, starting in 1975 and offered for sale starting in the 1980s and formally ending in the early 1990s.

It began as a further evolution of Northrop's F-5 Freedom Fighter/Tiger II, although ultimately it shared little more than a strong family resemblance to that aircraft.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Potential Sales
3 Specifications (F-20)
4 References
5 External links
6 Related content

[edit] History
It was originally designated F-5G, which was approved by the USAF in May 1981. The initial request for F-20 was initially turned down in 1982, the USAF proposing F-19 which ended up not being used at all. The USAF gave approval for F-20 designation use in November 1982 and of the extra name Tigershark in March 1983.

The main change was the replacement of the F-5's two General Electric J85 engines with a single General Electric F404 turbofan, increasing its total thrust by 60%. Like the F-5, however, it was designed as a low-cost, high-performance fighter plane that was easy to maintain. It could reach speeds of Mach 2.1 and had a ferry range of 1,715 miles (2,760 km). The aircraft was armed with General Electric AN/APG-67 radar that offered significant performance improvement over the original Emerson AN/APQ-159 radar of the original F-5E/F.

An air-to-air left side view of a Northrop F-20 Tigershark aircraft dropping practice bombs during a demonstration.The F-20 made its first flight on August 30, 1982, and a total of three prototypes were created. It was intended for sale to foreign countries and militaries, but the market for the plane never developed, as President Ronald Reagan relaxed the restrictions on selling fighters such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon to other countries. Also, in 1986, the United States government had not placed an order for the aircraft, but instead use the F-16 as the replacement aircraft for the continental U.S. air defense requirement [1] [2], had a large effect on the decisions of other countries not to buy the F-20. The Pakistan Air Force was offered the F-20 and A-10 Thunderbolt II, but insisted on choosing the F-16 because it was felt that it would give them a technological advantage.

After six years and no major buyers, Northrop cancelled the $1.2 billion project. Some felt that the U.S. Air Force was biased against the aircraft due to its unconventional development which reflected poorly on the air force management style in procuring aircraft. [3] Air forces that could afford the F-20 bought the F-16, while ones which could buy neither, purchased the cheaper F-5E/F Tiger II or the Russian MiG-21. While its performance was comparable to the Block 1/5/10 F-16 and superior to the turbojet-powered export-variant F-16/79, the F-20 airframe had virtually no remaining expansion capability, as it was built on essentially a 20 year old airframe at the limits of its capabilities. The F-20's low-set wing and wing-mounted undercarriage also limited the size and number (four underwing hardpoints on the F-20 vs. six on the F-16) of underwing stores that could be used; whereas the F-16 would often be seen with very large stores. The F-16 was a brand-new jet that had not even begun to approach its eventual capabilities. There was speculation within the F-20 development team that the US Air Force influenced foreign militaries to buy the F-16, in order to make spare parts more available.[citation needed]

The last existing F-20 is on display at the California Science Center. The other two prototypes were lost due to crashes during world sales tours. The crashes were caused by pilot error, and were not linked to any malfunction of the planes.

Aerospace legend Chuck Yeager, who worked as a spokesperson for Northrop during the F-20's development, frequently touted the plane and was regularly featured in its advertising.

[edit] Potential Sales

Two F-20s in a low-level passThough the aircraft did not achieve sales, it had a number of evaluations where it was close to being sold. Many ended up going with the F-16 Fighting Falcon, which due to lower export restrictions became much more available (such as Venezuela, which had been considering the F-20). Taiwan became a similar case, whose bid for licensed production was blocked by the US government for political reasons. Taiwan ended up using F-16 and developing the AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo. Sweden was another loss case, the 'F-5S' (an F-20 version for Sweden) was also passed over in favor of developing the JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft.[citation needed] Sweden did however use the RM12 derivative of the F-20's F404 engine for the Gripen. In 1985 negotiations were under way to supplement the Royal Moroccan Air Force fleet of attack aircraft that were too old or were shot down. 20 were to be obtained but the F-20 was canceled and so were the negotiations. In the 1990s the aircraft was offered to India. [4] The aircraft was also offered to the U.S. for a number of different tasks in the same period, all of which came to nothing (again the F-16 was chosen for some of tasks). [5]

Attempts to market the F-20 to South Korea resulted in a bribery scandal that led to the reprimand and retirement of Thomas V. Jones as chief executive of Northrop in 1989 [6].

[edit] Specifications (F-20)
General characteristics
Crew: 1 pilot
Length: 46 ft 6 in (14.2 m)
Wingspan: 26 ft 8 in (8.1 m)
Height: 13 ft 10 in (4.2 m)
Wing area: 186 ft² (17 m²)
Empty weight: 11,220 lb (5,090 kg)
Loaded weight: 15,060 lb (6,830 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 26,290 lb (11,920 kg)
Powerplant: 1× General Electric F404-GE-100 turbofan, 17,000 lbf (76 kN)
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 2.1
Combat radius: 300 nm (345 mi, 555 km)
Ferry range: 1,490 nm (1,715 mi, 2,760 km)
Service ceiling: 55,000 ft (16,800 m)
Rate of climb: 50,030 ft/min (255 m/s)
Wing loading: 81.0 lb/ft² (395 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 1.13
Armament
Guns: 2× 20 mm (0.787 in) M39 cannon
Hardpoints: 5 with a capacity of 8,000 lb (3,600 kg),
Missiles: 2× AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles

[edit] References
^ http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50712FC385B0C7B8DDDA80994DE484D81&n=Top%2fNews%2fBusiness%2fCompanies%2fGeneral%20Dynamics%20Corporation
^ http://www.f20a.com/f20faq.htm
^ http://www.f20a.com/f20faq.htm
^ F-20A Tigershark Home Page
^ [1]
^ New York Times, March 8, 1989

[edit] External links
California Science Center - F-20 Tigershark exhibit
F-20A Tigershark Home Page
National Museum of the United States Air Force

[edit] Related content
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
F-20 TigersharkRelated development
Northrop F-5
T-38 Talon
YF-17 Cobra
Comparable aircraft
AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo
F-16 Fighting Falcon
HAL Tejas
JF-17 Thunder
Designation sequence
as F-5G: F-2 - F-3 - F-4 - F-5G - F-6 - F-7 - F-8
as F-20: YF-17 - F/A-18 - F-19 - F-20 - F-21 - F-22 - YF-23
Related lists
List of military aircraft of the United States
List of fighter aircraft

F-19 Stealth Fighter

2007-08-04T22:21:00.000-07:00

F-19 Stealth Fighter

Developer(s) MicroProse
Publisher(s) MicroProse
Designer(s) Andy Hollis, Sid Meier
Release date(s) 1988
Genre(s) Combat flight simulator
Mode(s) Single player
Platform(s) Amiga, Atari ST, IBM PC, C64, ZX Spectrum
Media Floppy disk
Input Keyboard, joystick
This article is about the game. For the aircraft designation, see F-19.
F-19 Stealth Fighter

Developer(s) MicroProse
Publisher(s) MicroProse
Designer(s) Andy Hollis, Sid Meier
Release date(s) 1988
Genre(s) Combat flight simulator
Mode(s) Single player
Platform(s) Amiga, Atari ST, IBM PC, C64, ZX Spectrum
Media Floppy disk
Input Keyboard, joystick
F-19 Stealth Fighter is a combat flight simulator released in 1988 by MicroProse, featuring a fictional United States military aircraft. It was the 16-bit version of the 1987 game Project Stealth Fighter, which was released for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. At the time of the game's release there was heavy speculation surrounding a missing aircraft in the Air Force's numbering system, the F-19.

In the game, the player takes on the role of a fictional fighter pilot flying missions of varying difficulty over four geographic locations: Libya, the Persian Gulf, the North Cape, and Central Europe. Set in the present-day of 1988, the player was immersed in a Cold War era battlefield, flying missions against Iranian, Libyan, or Soviet opponents. The game could be played under conditions of Conventional Warfare, Limited Warfare, or Cold War - in the latter, even being detected by the enemy could lead to a major diplomatic incident.

F-19 Stealth Fighter title screenAllowing the player to choose appropriate ordnance from a wide range of realistic armaments, the game set standards for realism and authenticity in military aviation simulations, and was noted for the convincing behaviour of AI controlled units such as enemy aircraft, SAM sites and radar stations. These would behave in accordance with the situation - patrolling at first, but launching into a highly aggressive search if the player was detected. Other impressive features of the game were the highly realistic system of radar detection, where the player's varying radar signature was visually compared with the energy of incoming radar pulses at different ranges and powers, and a well thought-out variety of endings appropriate to the outcome of each mission. These included the player being rescued by an V-22 Osprey, a Tass newspaper proclaiming the capture of the pilot, or an outraged ally or neutral nation protesting the destruction of their aircraft! The Pilot Roster in the pre-game menu kept track of the missions, rank, score and medals awarded to each player. Pilot fatalities were permanent, which contributed to the extended campaign feeling of the game.

The original boxed version of the game came with a range of impressive accessories - such as various keyboard overlays, a comprehensive manual covering stealth and fighter tactics, and detailed maps of each warzone that were very useful to the player.

The game was later updated with a corrected aircraft model once the F-117 Nighthawk was declassified and with 256-color VGA graphics instead of the original's 16-color EGA, among other changes. This revision was numbered 2.0, as it was clearly an update of the earlier work instead of a wholly new project. This introduced new theatres of warfare such as Cuba and Operation Desert Storm - in the wake of the Persian Gulf War, the Iraqis were no longer the allied nation that they had been in the previous game.

[edit] External links
A review of the game
A review of the game
The Official F-19 Stealth Fighter Handbook at FlightSimBooks.com
F-19 Stealth Fighter at World of Spectrum
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-19_Stealth_Fighter"

F/A-18 Hornet

2007-08-04T22:13:00.000-07:00

F/A-18 in flight
Type Multirole fighter
Manufacturer McDonnell Douglas/Boeing
Northrop
Designed by McDonnell Douglas
Maiden flight 18 November 1978
Introduction 7 January 1983
Primary users United States Navy
United States Marine Corps
Royal Australian Air Force
Spanish Air Force
Number built >1,458
Unit cost US$35 million in 2003
Developed from Northrop YF-17
Variants CF-18 Hornet
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
EA-18 Growler
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F/A-18 Hornet is a modern all-weather carrier-capable strike fighter jet, designed to attack both ground and aerial targets. Designed in the 1970s for service with the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps, the Hornet is also used by the air forces of several other nations. It has been the aerial demonstration aircraft for the Blue Angels since 1986. Its primary missions are fighter escort, fleet air defense, suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD), interdiction, close air support and reconnaissance. Its versatility and reliability have proven it to be a valuable carrier asset, though it has been criticized for its lack of range and payload compared to its contemporaries.[1] The Hornet has also been exported to several nations worldwide.

The F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is a distinct, evolutionary upgrade to the F/A-18 designed to serve a complementary role with Hornets in the U.S. Navy.[2]
[edit] Development
Development of the F/A-18 came as a result of the U.S. Navy's Naval Fighter-Attack, Experimental (VFAX) program to procure a multirole aircraft to replace the F-4 Phantom II, A-4 Skyhawk, and A-7 Corsair II, and to complement the F-14 Tomcat. Vice Admiral Kent Lee, then head of Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), was the lead advocate for the VFAX against strong opposition from many Navy officers, including Vice Admiral William D. Houser, deputy chief of naval operations for air warfare - the highest ranking naval aviator.[3] In August 1973, congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14. Grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a navalized F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14. That summer, Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Force's Light Weight Fighter (LWF) program, the General Dynamics YF-16 and Northrop YF-17.[4] Though the competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. In May 1974, the House Armed Services Committee redirected $34 million from the VFAX to a new program, the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF),[4] intended to make maximum use of the technology developed for the LWF program.[5]

The YF-17 Cobra was navalized and developed into the F/A-18.Though the YF-16 won the LWF competition, the Navy was skeptical that an aircraft with one engine and narrow landing gear could be easily or economically adapted to carrier service, and refused to adopt an F-16 derivative. The Navy fought for and won permission to develop an aircraft based on the YF-17. Since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas and Northrop to design a new aircraft around the configuration and design principles of the YF-17. The new aircraft, designated the F-18, shared not a single essential dimension or primary structure with the YF-17. Secretary of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced on 1 March 1977 that the name of the aircraft would be "Hornet".[5]

F/A-18 attached to catapult on the flight deck of USS Abraham Lincoln.Northrop had enlisted the aid of McDonnell Douglas as a secondary contractor on the NACF proposal to capitalize on the latter's extensive experience in building carrier aircraft, including the highly successful F-4 Phantom II. On the F-18, the two companies agreed to split the parts manufacture evenly, with McDonnell Douglas completing the final assembly, representing ~20% of the work. McDonnell Douglas built the wings, stabilators, and forward fuselage; Northrop built the center and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the prime contractor for the naval versions.[4] Northrop would become the prime contractor and take over final assembly for the F-18L land-based version which Northrop hoped to sell on the export market.

The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model 267, was drastically modified from the YF-17 while retaining the same basic configuration. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and arrestor hook were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear widened. To meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds, with the enlargement of the dorsal spine and the addition of a 96 gallon fuel cell to each wing (the YF-17 had dry wings). Most visibly, a "snag" was added to the leading edge of the wings and stabilators to prevent a flutter discovered in the F-15 stabilator. The wings and stabilators were enlarged, the aft fuselage widened by 4 inches, and the engines canted outward at the front. These changes added 10,000 pounds to the gross weight, bringing it to 37,000 lb. The computer-assisted control system of the YF-17 was replaced with a wholly digital fly-by-wire system, the first to be installed in a production fighter.

The original plan specified acquiring 780 total of three closely related models: the single seat F-18A fighter and A-18A attack aircraft, differing only in avionics, and the dual-seat TF-18A, which retained full mission capability of the F-18,[1] except with a reduced fuel load. With redesign of the stores stations and improvements in avionics and multifunction displays, it became possible to combine the A-18A and F-18A into one aircraft.[5] Starting in 1980, the aircraft began being referred to as the F/A-18A, and the designation was officially announced on 1 April 1984. The TF-18A was redesignated F/A-18B.[5][1]

[edit] Northrop's F-18L
Northrop developed the F-18L as a potential export aircraft. Since it did not have to be strengthened for carrier service, it was expected to be lighter and better performing, and a strong competitor to the F-16 Fighting Falcon then being offered to American allies. The F-18L was 7,700 pounds (3,493 kg) (approximately 30%) lighter than the F/A-18A, due to a lighter landing gear, removal of the wing folding mechanism, and reduced frame thickness in some areas. Though the aircraft retained a lightened arresting hook. The most obvious external difference was the removal of the "snags" on the leading edge of the wings and stabilators. It still retained 71% commonality with the F/A-18 by parts weight, and 90% of the high-value systems, including the avionics, radar, and ECM suite, though alternatives were offered. Unlike the F/A-18, the F-18L carries no fuel in its wings and lacked weapons stations on the intakes. It had three underwing pylons on each side instead.

The partnership between the McDonnell Douglas and Northrop soured over competition for foreign sales for the two models. Northrop felt that McDonnell Douglas would put the F/A-18 in direct competition with the F-18L. In October 1979, Northrop filed a series of lawsuits charging that McDonnell was using Northrop technology developed for the F-18L for foreign sales in violation of their agreement, and asked for a moratorium on foreign sales of the Hornet via McDonnell Douglas. The case was resolved in 1985 when McDonnell agreed to pay Northrop $50 million for complete rights to the design, without any admission of wrongdoing. By then Northrop had ceased work on the F-18L, and most export orders were captured by the F-16 or the F/A-18.[5]

[edit] Design

A Hornet is doing a high-g pull-up during an air show. The high angle of attack causes powerful wingtip vortices to form at the leading edge extensions. The vortices shown are so powerful that the drop in pressure experienced at their center results in visible vapor formations from water precipitating in the air, sometimes called "vapes".The F/A-18 is a twin engine, mid-wing, multi-mission tactical aircraft. It is superbly maneuverable, owing to its good thrust to weight ratio, digital fly-by-wire control system, and leading edge extensions (LEX). The LEX allow the Hornet to remain controllable at high angles of attack. This is because the LEX produce powerful vortices over the wings, creating turbulent airflow over the wings and thus delaying or eliminating the aerodynamic separation responsible for stall, allowing the Hornet's wings to generate lift several times the aircraft's weight, despite high angles of attack. The Hornet is therefore capable of extremely tight turns over a large range of speeds.

Canted vertical stabilizers are another distinguishing design element, and among the other design characteristics that enable the Hornet's excellent high angle-of-attack capability include oversized horizontal stabilators, oversized trailing edge flaps that operate as flaperons, large full-length leading-edge flaps, and flight control computer programming that multiplies the movement of each control surface at low speeds and moves the vertical rudders inboard instead of simply left and right. The Hornet's normally high angle-of-attack performance envelope was put to rigorous testing and enhanced in the NASA F-18 HARV. NASA used the F-18 HARV to flight-validate high angle-of-attack handling qualities that had not been done previously because of the difficulty in performing such tests in a safe and methodical manner. The F/A-18's stabilators were used as canards on NASA's F-15S/MTD.

The Hornet was among the first aircraft to heavily utilize multi-function displays, which at the switch of a button allow the pilot to perform either fighter or attack roles or both. This "force multiplier" capability gives the operational commander more flexibility in employing tactical aircraft in a rapidly changing battle scenario. It was the first Navy aircraft to incorporate a digital multiplex avionics bus, enabling easy upgrades.[1]

The Hornet is also notable for having been designed with maintenance in mind, and as a result has required far less downtime than its counterparts, the F-14 Tomcat and the A-6 Intruder. Its mean time between failure is three times greater than any other Navy strike aircraft, and requires half the maintenance time.[1] For example, whereas replacing the engine on the A-4 Skyhawk required removing the aircraft's tail, the engine on the Hornet is attached at only three points and can be directly removed without excessive disassembly.

F/A-18 Hornet in transonic flight (Note Prandtl-Glauert condensation).The General Electric F404-GE-400 or F404-GE-402 engines powering the Hornet were also innovative in that they were designed with operability, reliability, and maintainability first. The result is an engine that, while unexceptional on paper in terms of rated performance, demonstrates exceptional robustness under a variety of conditions and is resistant to stall and flameout. By contrast, the Pratt & Whitney TF30 engines that originally powered the F-14A were notoriously prone to flameout under certain flight conditions.

The engine air inlets of the Hornet, like that of the F-16, are "fixed", while those of the F-4, F-14, and F-15 have variable geometry or variable ramp engine air inlets. The variable geometry enables high-speed aircraft to keep the velocity of the air reaching the engine below supersonic. This is one speed limiting factor in the Hornet design. Instead, the Hornet uses bleed air vents on the inboard surface of the engine air intake ducts to slow and reduce the amount of air reaching the engine. While not as effective as variable geometry, the bleed air technique functions well enough to achieve near Mach 2 speeds, which is within the designed mission requirements. The less sophisticated design is also more robust.

Because it was designed as a light multirole aircraft to complement the specialized F-14 and A-6 airframes, it had a relatively low internal fuel fraction. That is, its internal fuel capacity is small relative to its take-off weight, at around 23%. Most aircraft of its class has a fuel fraction between .30 to .35. This situation was exacerbated by the addition of new avionics over its lifespan, further reducing the fuel fraction.

[edit] Design evolution
In the 1990s the US Navy faced the need to replace its aging A-6 Intruders, EA-6 Prowlers, A-7 Corsair IIs and F-14 Tomcats without proper replacements in development. To answer this deficiency, the Navy had the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet developed. Despite its designation, it is not an upgrade of the F/A-18 Hornet, but rather, a new, larger airframe utilizing the design concepts of the Hornet. Until the deployment of the F-35C Lightning II, Hornets and Super Hornets will serve complementary roles in the US Navy carrier arsenal.

[edit] Operational history

[edit] Entry into service

F/A 18 Hornets on the flight deck of the Nimitz-class supercarrier Harry S. TrumanMcDonnell Douglas rolled out the first F/A-18A on 13 September 1978,[6] in blue-on-white colors marked with "Navy" on the left and "Marines" on the right. Its first flight was on 18 November.[6] In a break with tradition, the Navy pioneered the "principal site concept"[4] with the F/A-18, where almost all testing was done at NAS Pax River,[1] instead of near the site of manufacture, and involving Navy test pilots instead of contractor pilots much earlier in the process.

In March 1979, Lt Cdr John Padgett became the first Navy pilot to fly the F/A-18. In all, nine F/A-18As and two F/A-18Bs were assigned to flight systems development. During this period, the snag on the leading edge of the stabilators was filled in, and the gap between the leading edge root extendors (LERX) and the fuselage mostly filled in. The gap, called the boundary layer air discharge (BLAD) slots, controlled the vortices generated by the LERX and presented clean air to the vertical stabilizers at high angles of attack. However, they also generated a great deal of parasitic drag, worsening the problem of the F/A-18's inadequate range. McDonnell filled in 80% of the gap, leaving a small slot to bleed air from the engine intake. This may have contributed to early problems with fatigue cracks appearing on the vertical stabilizers due to extreme aerodynamic loads, resulting in a momentary grounding in 1984 until the stabilizers were strengthened. Starting in May 1988, a small vertical fence was added to the top of each LEX to broaden the vortices and direct them away from the vertical stabilizers. This also provided a minor increase in controllability as a side effect.

An F/A-18 taking off from USS Kitty Hawk.The first production F/A-18A flew on 12 April 1980, and following trials by VX-4 and VX-5, began to fill the Fleet Readiness Squadrons (FRS) VFA-125, VFA-106, and VMFAT-101, where pilots are introduced to the F/A-18. the Hornet entered operational service with Marine Corps squadron VMFA-314 at MCAS El Toro on 7 January 1983,[6] and with Navy squadron VFA-113 in March 1983, replacing F-4s and A-7Es, respectively.[1] The initial fleet reports were complimentary, indicating that the Hornet was extraordinarily reliable, a major change from its predecessor, the F-4J.[5] Other squadrons that switched to F/A-18 are VFA-146 "Blue diamonds", and VFA-147 "Argonauts".

After a production run of 380 F/A-18As[6] (including the nine assigned to flight systems development), manufacture shifted to the F/A-18C in September 1987.[1] As the A-6 Intruder was retired in the 1990s, its role was filled by the F/A-18. The F/A-18 demonstrated its versatility and reliability during Operation Desert Storm, shooting down enemy fighters and subsequently bombing enemy targets with the same aircraft on the same mission, and breaking all records for tactical aircraft in availability, reliability, and maintainability. The aircraft's survivability was proven by Hornets taking direct hits from surface-to-air missiles, recovering successfully, being repaired quickly, and flying again the next day.

[edit] Combat service
The F/A-18 first saw combat action in April 1986, when Hornets from Coral Sea flew SEAD missions against Libyan air defenses during Operation Prairie Fire and an attack on Benghazi as part of Operation El Dorado Canyon.[5]

Two US Navy F/A-18s were lost in the first hours of the Gulf War in 1990. One of the pilots, Lt Robert Dwayer was killed although the cause of his loss is unclear. The other, Lt Cdr M. Scott Speicher (VFA-81) remains missing in action. There are conflicting government accounts of Speicher's downing. One source, an unclassified summary of a 2001 CIA report, states that Speicher's aircraft was destroyed by an air-to-air missile fired by an Iraqi fighter, and that he may have survived by ejecting.[7] F/A-18 pilots were credited with two kills during the Gulf War, both MiG-21s.[8]

On the first day of Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991), U.S. Navy pilots Lt. Nick Mongilio and Lt. Cmdr. Mark Fox were sent from the USS Saratoga in the Red Sea to bomb an airfield in southwestern Iraq. While enroute they were warned by E-2 of approaching MiG-21 aircraft. The Hornets shot down two MiGs and resumed their bombing run, each carrying four 2,000lb bombs, before returning to Saratoga. Mongilio and Fox become the first pilots to register air-to-air kills while still completing their original air-to-ground mission.[6][1]

Both U.S. Navy F/A-18Cs and Marine F/A-18A/C/D models were used continuously in Operation Southern Watch and over Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s. U.S. Navy Hornets flew in Operation Enduring Freedom from carriers operating in the North Arabian Sea. Both the F/A-18C and newer F/A-18E/F variants were used in Operation Iraqi Freedom. A F/A-18C was accidentally downed in a Friendly Fire incident by a Patriot missile early in the conflict, and two others collided over Iraq in May 2005.

[edit] Variants

[edit] A+/C/D

A Finnish Air Force F/A-18C at RIAT 2005The F/A-18A and F/A-18C are single-seat aircraft. The F/A-18B and F/A-18D have two seats, space for the rear cockpit being provided by a relocation of avionic equipment and a 6% reduction in internal fuel; two-seat Hornets are otherwise fully combat-capable. The B model is used primarily for training, while the D model is configured as an all-weather strike craft. Whereas the B model has both seats configured as pilot's stations, the D model's rear seat is configured for a Weapons and Sensors Officer to assist in operating the weapons systems. The D model is primarily operated by the U.S. Marine Corps in the night attack and FAC(A) (Forward Air Controller (Airborne)) roles.

The F/A-18C and D models are the result of a block upgrade in 1987[6] incorporating upgraded radar, avionics, and the capacity to carry new missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile and AGM-65 Maverick[1] and AGM-84 Harpoon air-to-surface missiles. Other upgrades include the Martin-Baker NACES (Navy Aircrew Common Ejection Seat), and a self-protection jammer. A synthetic aperture ground mapping radar enables the pilot to locate targets in poor visibility conditions. C and D models delivered since 1989 also include an improved night attack capability, consisting of the Hughes AN/AAR-50 thermal navigation pod, the Loral AN/AAS-38 Night Hawk FLIR (forward looking infrared array) targeting pod, night vision goggles, and two full-color (previously monochrome) MFDs and a color moving map.[1]

The Blue Angels' F/A-18A.The F/A-18A and B models are used by the US Navy's Blue Angels aerobatic team, performing at airshows and other special events across the US and worldwide. The Blue Angels have used the Hornet since 1986[6] when it replaced the A-4 Skyhawk. The two-seat B model is typically used to give rides to VIPs, but can also fill in for other aircraft in the squadron in a normal show if the need arises.

Beginning in 1991, Hornets were upgraded to the F404-GE-402 engine, providing a 20% increase in thrust.

In 1992, the original Hughes AN/APG-65 radar was replaced with the Hughes (now Raytheon) AN/APG-73, a faster and more capable radar. The A model Hornets upgraded to the AN/APG-73 are designated F/A-18A+. Since 1993, the Nite Hawk also has a designator/ranger laser, allowing it to self-mark targets.

In addition, 48 D model Hornets are configured for reconnaissance as the F/A-18D (RC) version, substituting the gun with an electro-optical sensor package call ATARS.

Production of the F/A-18C ended in 1999.

[edit] E/F Super Hornet
Main article: F/A-18E/F Super Hornet

A VFA-11 F/A-18F Super Hornet performing evasive maneuvers during an air power demonstration above USS Harry S. Truman.The single seat F/A-18E and two-seat F/A-18F Super Hornets carry over the name and design concept of the original F/A-18, but have been extensively redesigned. The Super Hornet has a new, 25% larger airframe, more powerful GE F414 engines based on F/A-18's F404, and upgraded avionics suite. The aircraft is currently in production and will eventually equip 22 squadrons.

[edit] EA-18G Growler
Main article: EA-18 Growler
The EA-18G Growler is an electronic warfare version of the F/A-18F Super Hornet, slated to begin production in 2008, with fleet deployment in 2009. The EA-18G will replace the Navy's EA-6B Prowler.

[edit] Other U.S. variants

X-53, NASA's modified F/A-18.RF-18
This designation was given to a reconnaissance version of the F/A-18A. The first of two prototypes flew in February 1984, however the variant was not produced.
TF-18A
Two-seat training version of the F/A-18A fighter, later redesignated F/A-18B.
F-18D(CR)
Proposed two-seat reconnaissance version for the US Marine Corps. The F-18D(CR) was originally intended to replace the RF-4B Phantom II tactical reconnaissance aircraft. None were ever built.
F-18 HARV
Single-seat high-alpha research vehicle for NASA.
X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing
A NASA F/A-18 has been modified to demonstrate the Active Aeroelastic Wing technology, and was designated X-53 in December 2006.

[edit] Export variants
These designations are not part of 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.

F-18L
This was a lighter land-based version of the F/A-18 Hornet. It was designed to be a single-seat air-superiority fighter and ground-attack aircraft. It was originally intended to be built by Northrop as the export version of the F/A-18 Hornet. The F-18L was lighter due to the removal of carrier landing capability. Despite the advantages, customers preferred the "ordinary" Hornet, and the F-18L never went into production.
(A)F/A-18A/B

(A)F/A-18A: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Royal Australian Air Force.
(A)F/A-18B: Two-seat training version for the Royal Australian Air Force.
"F/A-18A" was the original company designation, designations of "AF-18A" & "ATF-18A" have also been applied. Assembled in Australia (excluding the first two (A)F/A-18Bs) by Aero-Space Technologies of Australia (ASTA) from 1985 through to 1990, from kits produced by McDonnell Douglas with increasing local content in the later aircraft. Originally the most notable differences between a Australian (A)F/A-18A/B and a US F/A-18A/B were the lack of a catapult attachment, replacement of the carrier tailhook for a lighter "land" arresting hook, and the replacement of the automatic carrier landing system with an Instrument Landing System. Australian Hornets have been involved in a number of major upgrade programs. This program called HUG (Hornet Upgrade) has had a few evolutions over the years. The first was to give Australian Hornets F/A-18C model avionics. The second and current upgrade program (HUG 2.2) updates the fleet's avionics to beyond E model Hornet capability.

Canadian CF-18A Hornet off the coast of Hawaii. Note the 'false cockpit' painted on the underside of the aircraft, intended to confuse enemy pilots during dogfights.CF-18 Hornet

CF-18A : Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Canadian Forces. The Canadian Forces' official designation is CF-188A Hornet.
CF-18B : Two-seat training version for the Canadian Forces. The Canadian Forces' official designation is CF-188B Hornet.
EF-18 Hornet

EF-18A: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Spanish Air Force. The Spanish Air Force designation is C.15.
EF-18B: Two-seat training version for the Spanish Air Force. The Spanish Air Force designation is CE.15.
KAF-18 Hornet

KAF-18C: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Kuwait Air Force.
KAF-18D: Two-seat training version for the Kuwait Air Force.
F-18C/D Hornet

Finland uses F/A-18C/D Hornets, with Finland specific mid-life update. It lacks certain avionics, target acquisition and weapon control features, limiting its ground attack capability. The 57 single-seated F-18C model units were assembled by Patria in Finland.[9]
F-18C/D Hornet

Switzerland uses F-18C/D,[10] later Swiss specific mid-life update. The Swiss F-18s were originally without ground attack capability until hardware was retrofitted.

Northrop YF-17

2007-08-04T22:08:00.000-07:00

Type Prototype fighter
Manufacturer Northrop Corporation
Maiden flight 9 June 1974
Primary user United States Air Force (intended)
Number built 2
Developed from Northrop F-5[1]
Variants F/A-18 Hornet
(Redirected from YF-17 Cobra)
Jump to: navigation, search
YF-17 "Cobra"

YF-17 in flight over the desert.
Type Prototype fighter
Manufacturer Northrop Corporation
Maiden flight 9 June 1974
Primary user United States Air Force (intended)
Number built 2
Developed from Northrop F-5[1]
Variants F/A-18 Hornet
The Northrop YF-17 (unofficially nicknamed "Cobra") was a prototype lightweight day fighter aircraft designed for the United States Air Force's Light Weight Fighter (LWF) technology evaluation program. The LWF was created because many in the fighter community believed that aircraft like the F-15 Eagle were too large and expensive for many combat roles. It was the culmination of a long line of Northrop designs, beginning with the N-102 Fang in 1956, continuing through the F-5 series.

Though it lost the LWF competition to the F-16, it was selected for the new VFAX specification. In enlarged form, the F/A-18 Hornet was adopted by the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps to replace the A-7 Corsair II and F-4 Phantom II, complement the more expensive F-14 Tomcat.[1] This design, conceived as a lightweight fighter would ironically be scaled up to the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, which is similar in size as the original F-15 Eagle. The Super Hornet would replace the F-14 and perform all jet combat aircraft roles from attack to fighter, tanker and electronic warfare.
[edit] Design and development
The aircraft's main design elements date to early 1965, from the internal Northrop project N-300. The N300 was itself based on the F-5E, modified with a stretched fuselage, small leading-edge root extensions (LERX), and more powerful GE15-J1A1 turbojets, rated at 9,000 pound force (lbf) each. The wing was moved higher on the fuselage to increase ordnance flexibility. The N-300 further evolved into the P-530 Cobra, utilizing 13,000 lbf GE15J1A5 engines, with a very small .25 bypass ratio. The bypass effectively was only a cooling stream for the rear of the engine, leading to the nickname "leaky turbojet", allowing the engine bay to be constructed of lighter, cheaper materials.[1]

The P-530's wing planform and nose section was similar to the F-5, with a trapezoidal shape formed by a sweep of 20° at the quarter-chord line, and an unswept trailing edge, but was over double the area, with 400 square feet as opposed to the 186 of the F-5E. Initially shoulder mounted, the wings were gradually shifted down to the mid position. Its most distinctive new feature were the LERXs, that tapered into the fuselage under the cockpit. They enabled maneuvering at angles of attack exceeding 50°, by providing about 50% additional lift. The extensions also smoothed airflow into the engine inlets at high angles of attack. The resemblance to the head of a cobra lead to the adoption of the nickname "Cobra", often unofficially used for the YF-17.[2] Studies showed a single vertical stabilizer was insufficient at high angles of attack, and it was changed to twin vertical stabilizers, canted at 45°. The result was an aircraft that had relaxed longitudinal stability, enhancing maneuverability. However, Northrop was not yet confident in fly-by-wire controls and retained mechanically signaled flight controls. The resulting aircraft, unveiled on 28 January 1971, advertised a max weight of 40,000 pounds and maximum speed of Mach 2, but stirred little interest among foreign buyers.

[edit] Design characteristics
The YF-17 was primarily constructed of aluminum, in conventional semi-monocoque stressed-skin construction, though over 900 pounds of its structure were graphite/epoxy composite. The small nose contained a simple ranging radar. The cockpit sported an ejection seat inclined at 18°, a bubble canopy, and a heads-up display. The thin wings carried no fuel, and in areas such as the leading and trailing edge and the LERX, were composed of a Nomex honeycomb core with composite facesheets. The rear of the aircraft sported twin all-moving stabilators of aluminum over a honeycomb core, and twin vertical stabilizers of a conventional construction. Like the wings, the leading and trailing edges were constructed of composite facesheets over honeycomb core. A composite speedbrake was located above and between the engines.

The aircraft was powered by a pair of 14,400-lbf General Electric YJ101-GE-110 turbofans, a development of the GE15, mounted next to each other to minimize thrust asymmetry in the event of an engine loss. For ease of maintentance, the engines are mounted in a steady-rest that allows removal from below the aircraft, without disturbing the empennage controls. Each engine drove an independent hydraulic system. Unlike the P530, the YF-17 sported a partial fly-by-wire control scheme, formally called the electronic control augmentation system (CAS), utilizing ailerons, rudders, and stabilators for primary flight control.

[edit] Testing and evaluation
When the Light Weight Fighter program was announced in 1971, Northrop modified the P530 into the P600 design that would be designated the YF-17A. Whereas the P530 was intended as a multi-role aircraft, the P600 was to be strictly an air-to-air demonstrator, and consequently the cannon moved from the underside of the fuselage, to the upper part. Design of the YF-17 and the prototype YJ101 engine (a development of the GE15 engine), consumed over a million man-hours, and 5,000 hours of wind tunnel testing.

An air-to-air right side view of a YF-16 aircraft and a YF-17 aircraft, side-by-side, armed with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles.The first prototype (tail number 72-1569) was rolled out at Hawthorne on 4 April 1974, and made its first flight at Edwards AFB on 9 June. The second (72-1570) first flew on 21 August. Through 1974, the YF-17 competed against the General Dynamics YF-16 Fighting Falcon. The two prototypes flew 288 test flights, totaling 345.5 hours. The YF-17 attained a top speed of Mach 1.95, a peak load factor of 9.4 g, and a maximum altitude of over 50,000 feet. It could attain a sustained 34° angle of attack in level flight, and 63° in a climb at 50 knots.

The US Navy was a small participant on the LWF program. In August 1974, Congress directed the Navy to make maximum use of the technology and hardware of the LWF for its new lightweight strike fighter, the VFAX.[citation needed] As neither contractor had experience with naval fighters, they sought partners to provide that expertise. General Dynamics teamed with LTV Aerospace; Northrop with McDonnell Douglas. Each submitted revised designs in line with the Navy needs for a long-range radar and multirole capabilities.[3]

[edit] F/A-18 origins
Through Northrop was expected to be the winner based on its years of light fighter experience and the maturity and extensive history of the P-530 design, the Air Force selected the YF-16 in January 1975. The YF-16 was slightly faster and used a common engine with the Air Force's F-15 Eagle. The Navy did not believe the YF-16's single engine and narrow landing gear were suitable or easily adapted to carrier operations, and refused to adopt the design. In May 1975, the Navy secured approval to develop its own aircraft based on the YF-17. As this now became a purely naval project, the Navy designated McDonnell Douglas the prime contractor. As the Navy requirements were quite different from the Air Force's, the aircraft was significantly modified; the resulting F/A-18 Hornet would share no dimensions or structures with the YF-17 demonstrators.

[edit] Specifications (YF-17A)

YF-17General characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 56 ft 0 in (17.0 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft 0 in (10.5 m)
Height: 16 ft 6 in (5.0 m)
Wing area: 350 ft² (32 m²)
Empty weight: 17,180 lb (9,500 kg)
Loaded weight: 23,000 lb (10,430 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 34,280 lb (13,900 kg)
Powerplant: 2× General Electric YJ101[2] afterburning turbofans, 14,400 lbf (67 kN) each
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 1.95
Range: 2,990 mi (4,810 km)
Service ceiling: 50,000 ft (15,000 m)
Rate of climb: 50,000 ft/min (250 m/s)
Wing loading: 66 lb/ft² (320 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 1.25
Armament
Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61 Vulcan gatling gun
Missiles: 2× AIM-9 Sidewinder

[edit] References
^ a b c Jenkins, Dennis R. F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN 0-07-140037-0.
^ a b Baugher, Joe. Northrop YF-17 Cobra. [1] Access date: 8 January 2007.
^ Wooldridge, E.T., ed. (with McCain, John S.) Into the Jet Age: Conflict and Change in Naval Aviation, 1945-1975: An Oral History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1995. ISBN 1-55750-932-8.
Miller, Jay. McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet (Aerofax Mingraph 25). Arlington, Texas: Aerofax, Inc., 1986. ISBN 0-942546-39-6.

F-16 Fighting Falcon

2007-08-04T22:04:00.000-07:00

F-14 Tomcat

2007-08-04T02:16:00.000-07:00

alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5094772506430068290" />
Type Interceptor/multi-role Fighter aircraft
Manufacturer Grumman
Designed by Bob Kress, engineering manager[1]
Maiden flight 21 December 1970
Introduction September 1974
Retired 22 September 2006, USN
Status Active service with Iran
Retired from US service
Primary users United States Navy
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force
Number built 712
Unit cost US$38 million in 1998
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is a supersonic, twin-engine, two-seat, variable geometry wing aircraft. The F-14 was the United States Navy's primary maritime air superiority fighter, fleet defense interceptor and tactical reconnaissance platform from 1974 to 2006. It later performed precision strike missions once it was integrated with LANTIRN.[2] It was developed after the collapse of the F-111B project, and was the first of the American teen-series fighters which were designed incorporating the experience of air combat in Vietnam against MiGs.

It entered service in 1972 with the U.S. Navy, replacing the F-4 Phantom II. It was later exported to the Imperial Iranian Air Force in 1976. It was retired from the U.S. Navy fleet on 22 September 2006, having been replaced by the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.[3] As of 2007, it remains in service only with the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force.

B-29 Superfortress variants

2007-08-04T02:14:00.000-07:00

B-29 Superfortress

A B-29 being flown for training at Maxwell Air Force Base. Variant uncertain.The Boeing B-29 Superfortress variants is an extensive list of the variants and specific unique elements of each variant and/or design stage of the B-29 Superfortress heavy bomber.

Contents [hide]
1 XB-29
2 YB-29
3 B-29
4 B-29A
5 B-29B
6 B-29C
7 B-29D
8 Test beds
9 KB-29 Tanker Development
10 EB-29
11 SB-29
12 TB-29
13 WB-29
14 Airborne Early Warning
15 XB-39 Superfortress
16 Tupolev Tu-4
17 See also
18 References and External links

[edit] XB-29
The XB-29 was the prototype model delivered to the Army Air Corps, incorporating a number of improvements on the design originally submitted, including more and bigger guns and self-sealing fuel tanks. Two aircraft were ordered in 1940 August, and a third was ordered in December. A mock-up was completed in the spring of 1941, and it first flew on 1942 September 21.

Testing continued until 1943 February 18, when the second prototype crashed. Flown by Boeing's chief test pilot, Edmund T. Allen on a two-hour powerplant performance test, one of the planes engines caught fire. Due to the significant use of magnesium, the engine fire eventually burned through the wing spar, causing the wing to break apart. The crash killed many élite Boeing personnel involved in the design; the pilot, Allen, was chief of the Research Division. After the crash, the United States Army Air Forces and a congressional committee headed by then-Senator Harry S. Truman investigated the B-29 programme. The latter issued a scathing report, prompting the Army Air Force to take over the prgoramme. (×3)

References:

USAF Museum
Encyclopedia of American Aircraft

[edit] YB-29
The YB-29 was an improved XB-29 for service testing. Testing began in the summer of 1943, and dozens of modifications were made to the planes. The engines were upgraded from Wright R-3350-13s to R-3350-21s. Where the XB-29 had three-bladed props, the YB-49 had four-bladed. Various alternatives to the remote-sighted defensive systems were tested on a number of them, particularly the fourth one delivered. After alternative arrangements had been fully tested, defensive armament was standardised at five .50-calibre machine guns in turret-mounted pairs. The YB-29 also featured a better fire control system. (×14)

References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] B-29
The B-29 was the original production version of the Superfortress. Since the new bomber was urgently needed, the production design was developed in tandem with the service testing. In fact, the first B-29 was completed only two months after the delivery of the first YB-29. 46 B-29's of this variant built by the Glenn L. Martin Company at its Omaha plant were used as the aircraft for the atomic bomb missions, modified to Silverplate specifications. 2,513 B-29's were manufactured by Boeing-Wichita (1,620), Bell-Atlanta (357), and Martin-Omaha (536).

RB-29 - Photo-reconnaissance version of the B-29. Original designation F-13.
Washington Mk 1 - This designation was given to 88 B-29s supplied to the Royal Air Force.
References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] B-29A
The B-29A was an improved version of the original B-29 production model. All 1,119 B-29A's were built exclusively at the Boeing plant in Renton, Washington, formerly used by the United States Navy.

Enhancements made in the B-29A included a better wing design and defensive modifications. Due to a demonstrated weakness to head-on fighter attacks, the number of machine guns in the forward dorsal turrets was doubled to four. Where the wings of previous models had been made by the sub-assembly of two sections, the B-29A began the trend of using three. This made construction easier, and increased the strength of the airframe. The B-29A was produced until 1946 May, when the last aircraft was completed. It was much used during the Korean War, but was quickly phased out when the jet bomber became operational.

RB-29A - Photo-reconnaissance version of the B-29A. Original designation F-13.
References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] B-29B
The B-29B was a modification used for low-level raids, designed with the intent of firebombing Japan. Since fighter opposition was minimal over Japan in late 1944, many of the Army Air Force leadership — most notably Curtis LeMay, commander of the 21st Bomber Command — felt that a (lighter) faster bomber would better evade Japanese flak.

In the B-29B, all defensive armament was removed, except the M2 cannon in the tail, which was replaced by two automatically fired .50 in M2 machine guns. The weight saved by removing the gun system increased the top speed from 357 mph to 364 mph (574 km/h to 586 km/h). All 311 B-29Bs were built at the Bell plant in Marietta, Georgia ("Bell-Atlanta").

References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] B-29C
Never built, the B-29C was a modification of the B-29A re-engined with improved Wright R-3350 engines. The Army Air Force originally ordered 5,000, but cancelled its request when World War II ended. None were built.

[edit] B-29D
The B-29D was an improved version of the original B-29 design, featuring Pratt & Whitney R-4360-35 engines of 3500 hp (2600 kW) each — nearly 60% more powerful than the Wright R-3350! It also had a taller vertical stabiliser and a strengthened wing.

When World War II ended, drastic cutbacks were made in military spending, altering the outlook of the B-29 programme. Because Congress was reluctant to continue funding wartime projects, the B-29D was redesignated B-50 to make it appear completely new. Congress fell for the trick, and the B-29D was kept alive, even though no planes flew under the designation.

References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] Test beds
A number of B-29s were converted to serve as test beds for new systems. These all received variant designation, even though many existed only as a single converted aircraft. These included the XB-29E for fire-control systems (one converted), the B-29F for cold-weather operation in Alaska (six converted), and the XB-29H to test armament configurations.

It was also used in the development of jet engines. Stripped of armament, a converted B-29B designated the XB-29G carried experimental jet engines in its bomb bay, which it would extend into the airstream for testing during flight. This plane was used to test the Allison J35, General Electric J47, and General Electric J73. (See 1, 2.)

Some experimentation in engines continued. For example, six B-29s (redesignated YB-29J) of various designation were upgraded to R-3350-79 engines. Other engine-associated items were also upgraded, including new Curtiss propellers, and 'Andy Gump' cowlings, in which the oil coolers have separate air intakes. Two were later converted to aerial refueling tanker prototypes, and redesignated YKB-29J. The remainder were used for reconnaissance, and designated RB-29J.

[edit] KB-29 Tanker Development
Main article: Boeing KB-29

[edit] EB-29
The EB-29 (E stands for exempt), was used as a carrier aircraft in which the bomb bay was modified to accept and launch experimental aircraft. They were converted in the years following World War II. One EB-29 was converted to carry the famous Bell X-1 until it was replaced by a B-50. Another was used to carry and test the XF-85 'parasite fighter'. This fighter was intended to be carried by the Convair B-36 on long-range missions to protect it from Soviet fighters. Yet another EB-29 was used to carry two EF-84B Thunderjet fighters as part of Project Tom-Tom. All three Tom-Tom aircraft and their crews were lost in a crash on April 24, 1953.

References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] SB-29
The SB-29 'Super Dumbo' was a version of the B-29 adapted for air rescue duty after World War II. Modified to carry a droppable A-3 lifeboat under the fuselage, the SB-29 was used mainly as rescue support for air units that flew long distances over water. With the exception of the forward lower gun turret, all defensive armament was retained. It was used throughout the Korean War into the mid-1950s. It received its nickname from 'Dumbo', the name given by B-29 pilots to the rescue planes who picked them up when they crashed at sea. (×16, converted)

References:

USAF Museum

[edit] TB-29
The TB-29 was a trainer conversion of B-29 used to train crew for bombing missions; some were also used to tow targets, and the designation included B-29s modified solely for that purpose. Their most important role was serving as radar targets in the 1950s when the United States Air Force was developing intercept tactics for its fighters.

References:

USAF Museum

[edit] WB-29
The WB-29s were production aircraft modified to do weather missions. They conducted standard data-gathering flights, but were also ordered to fly into the eye of a hurricane or typhoon to gather information. Following nuclear weapons tests, some WB-29s would use air sampling scoops to test radiation levels.

References:

USAF Museum

[edit] Airborne Early Warning
In the middle of 1951, three B-29s were modified to participate in the Airborne Early Warning programme. The upper section of the forward fuselage was extensively modified to house an AN/APS-20C search radar, and the interior was modified to house radar and Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) equipment. This development led to production radar picket aircraft, including the EC-121 Warning Star. (×3, converted)

Interestingly, a Soviet-built copy of B-29, Tu-4, was used as the platform for a Chinese experimental airborne early warning aircraft, KJ-1 AEWC, in 1970s.

References:

USAF Museum

[edit] XB-39 Superfortress
The XB-39 Superfortress was a single YB-29 modified to use water-cooled Allison V-3420-17 inline engines. Since the Army Air Force was concerned that problems might develop with their first choice of engine, the Wright R-3350, they contracted General Motors to do testing on a modified aircraft to show that it could still be used even if the R-3350 failed. Since the R-3350 did not have significant enough problems to prevent its use, no B-39s were ordered.

References:

Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
USAF Museum

[edit] Tupolev Tu-4
Main article: Tupolev Tu-4
In 1945, three B-29s were forced to land in Soviet territory after a bombing raid on Japan. Since the Soviet Union was not at war with Japan at the time, the aircraft and crews were interned. Eventually, the B-29 crew members were returned, but the aircraft remained in Russian hands. Seeking a modern long-range bomber, Josef Stalin ordered the Tupolev OKB to reverse-engineer the Superfortress.

The resulting aircraft first flew in May 19, 1947 and immediately began series production. Although largely identical in appearance to American B-29's the Tu-4(Nato reporting name: "Bull"), had Soviet-designed defensive guns and had been re-engineered to suit production using metric tools; resulting in an aircraft that was slightly heavier and slower than the B-29. The Tu-4 presented a significant leap forward in Soviet strategic bombing. Not only did the Red Air Force have the means to deliver nuclear weapons, but Tu-4 had sufficient range to reach the United States on a one-way trip. On October 18, 1951, a Tu-4 was used in the first air-drop test of a Soviet atomic bomb.

In Soviet service, the Tu-4 had been phased out of service by the early 1960s, being replaced by more modern aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-95. Although the "Bull" never dropped a bomb in anger, the Tu-4 influenced Soviet aircraft technology, particularly airframe construction and onboard systems. The People's Liberation Army Air Force of China is rumoured to still operate up to 15 upgraded Tu-4s, possibly as AWACS platforms.

Advanced transport and bomber variants of the Tu-4 design such as the Tu-70, 75, 80, and 85, were developed and built, but none of these achieved serial production.

[edit] See also
B-29 Superfortress
List of bomber aircraft
List of military aircraft of the United States
Strategic Air Command

[edit] References and External links
Wheeler, Keith. Bombers over Japan (World War II). Time-Life Books, 1982
Higham, Robin, et al. Flying American Combat Aircraft of WW II: 1939-1945. Stackpole Books, 2004.
B-29.org
Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
Official USAF Museum Website
Warbirds Resource Group

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21

2007-08-04T02:05:00.000-07:00

MiG-21

MiG-21bis of 1st Naval Fighter Sqn., Polish Air Force.
Type Fighter
Manufacturer Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB
Maiden flight 14 June 1956
Introduced 1959
Primary users Soviet Air Force
Indian Air Force
Polish Air Force
Vietnam People's Air Force
Number built 10,000+[1]
10,158 were made in the USSR, another 194 in the Czech republic

Variants Ye-150
Ye-152
Chengdu J-7
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21) (NATO reporting name "Fishbed") is a supersonic jet fighter aircraft, designed and built by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. More than 30 countries of the world have flown the MiG-21, and it still serves many nations a half-century after its first flight. Its Mach 2 capability exceeds the top speed of many later modern fighter types. Estimates are that more than 10,000 MiG-21s were built, more than any other supersonic jet aircraft.[2]

[edit] Development
The first generation of MiG jet fighters was based on designs similar to late-WWII German jet designs, starting with the subsonic MiG-15, MiG-17, and the low supersonic swept-wing MiG-19. A number of experimental Mach 2 Soviet designs were based on nose intakes with either swept-back wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-7, or tailed delta wings, of which the MiG-21 would be the most successful.

The E-5 prototype of the MiG-21 was first flown in 1955 and made its first public appearance during the Soviet Aviation Day display at Moscow's Tushino Airport in June 1956. The first delta-wing prototype, named "Ye-4", (also written as "E-4") flew on 14 June 1956, and the production MiG-21 entered service in early 1959. Employing a delta-wing configuration, the MiG-21 was the first successful Soviet aircraft combining fighter and interceptor characteristics in a single aircraft. It was a lightweight fighter, achieving Mach 2 speed using a relatively low-powered afterburning turbojet, and is thus comparable to the American F-104 Starfighter and French Dassault Mirage III.

When the MiG-21 was first introduced, it exhibited several flaws. Its early version air-to-air missiles, the Vympel K-13 (NATO reporting name AA-2 'Atoll'), were not successful in combat, and its gyro gunsight was easily thrown off in high-speed maneuvers, making the initial version of the MiG-21 an ineffective aircraft. These problems were remedied, and during the Middle Eastern and Vietnam wars, the MiG-21 proved to be an effective aircraft. Subsequent MiG-21 models added design modifications to incorporate lessons learned in these wars.

Like many aircraft designed as interceptors, the MiG-21 had a short range. This was not helped by a design defect where the center of gravity shifted rearwards once two-thirds of the fuel had been used. This had the effect of making the plane uncontrollable, resulting in an endurance of only 45 minutes in clean condition. The delta wing, while excellent for a fast-climbing interceptor, meant that any form of turning combat led to a rapid loss of speed. However, the light loading of the aircraft could mean that, at 50% fuel and with 2 AA-2 'Atoll' air-to-air missiles, a climb rate of 58,000 ft (17,670 m) per minute was possible, not far short of the performance of the later F-16A. Given a skilled pilot and capable missiles, it could give a good account of itself against contemporary fighters. It was replaced by the newer variable-geometry MiG-23 and MiG-27 for ground support duties. However, not until the MiG-29 would the Soviet Union ultimately replace the MiG-21 as a maneuvering dogfighter to counter new American air superiority types.

The MiG-21 was exported widely and continues to be used well past the time where it might have been considered obsolete. The aircraft's simple controls, engine, weapons, and avionics were typical of Soviet-era military designs. While technologically inferior to the more advanced fighters it often faced, low production and maintenance costs made it a favorite of nations buying Eastern Bloc military hardware.

Due to the lack of available information, early details of the MiG-21 were often confused with those of the similar Sukhoi fighters also under development. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1960-1961 describes the "Fishbed" as a Sukhoi design, and uses an illustration of the Su-9 'Fishpot'.

[edit] Production
A total of 10158 (some sources say 10645) were built in the USSR. They were produced in three factories, in the GAZ 30 in Moscow (also known as Znamiya Truda), in GAZ 21 in Gorky[3] and in GAZ 31 in Tbilisi. The type of "MiG" manufactured differed. Gorky built single-seaters for the Soviet forces. Moscow built single-seaters for export and Tbilisi manufactured the twin-seaters both for export and for the USSR. However, there are exceptions. The MiG-21R and MiG-21bis for export and for the USSR were built in Gorky, 17 single-seaters were bulit in Tbilisi (probably MiG-21F), the MiG-21MF was first built in Moscow and then Gorky, and the MiG-21U was built in Moscow as well as in Tbilisi. The count for each factory is:

5278(or 5765) in Gorky
3203 in Moscow
1677 in Tbilisi [1]

[edit] Technical description
The MiG-21 is a single-engined jet fighter aircraft capable of supersonic flight. [2] [3]

Wing
The MiG-21 has a delta wing. The sweep angle on the leading edge is 57° with a TsAGI S-12 airfoil. The angle of incidence is 0° while the dihedral angle is -2°. On the trailing edge there are ailerons with an area of 1,18 m², and flaps with an area of 1,87 m². In front of the ailerons there are small wing fences.

Fuselage
A semi-monocoque with an elliptical profile with a maximum width of 1,24m. The air flow to the engine is regulated by a cone in the air intake. Up until the MiG-21PF it is three staged. On speeds up to M=1,5 it is fully retracted, between speeds of M=1,5 and M=1,9 its in the middle position, and with speeds higher than M=1,9 its in the maximum forward position. However, on the MiG-21PF it adapts to the actual speed, according to the UVD-2M system aboard the aircraft, which monitors the pressure in front and behind the compressor of the engine. On both side of the nose there are gills to supply the engine with more air while on the ground and during takeoff. The first variant of the MiG-21 the Pitot tube is on the bottom of the nose. After the MiG-21P every version of the "21" has the Pitot tube situated on the top of the air intake. The cabin is pressurized and air conditioned. The canopy up until the MiG-21PFM opens on a hinge on the front of the canopy. When ejecting the SK-1 ejection seat connects with the canopy making a capsule to enclose the pilot and protect him from the airflow, after which it would separate and the pilot would parachute down. However, the canopy took too long to separate and some pilots were killed after ejecting on low altitudes. On the MiG-21PFM the canopy open on a hinge on the right side of the cockpit. On the belly of the plane there are three air brakes. Two in the front and one in the back. The front brakes have an area of 0,76 m², and a deflection angle of 35°. The back one has an area of 0,46 m² and a deflection angle of 40°. The usage of the back air brake is blocked if the plane caries an external fuel tank. Behind the air brakes are the bays for the main landing gear. Under the body, just behind the trailing edge of the wing, two JATO rockets can be attached. The front part of the fuselage ends with former #28. Beginning with former #28a is the back part of the fuselage, which is removable for engine maintenance.

Empennage
The empennage of the MiG-21 consists of a vertical stabilizer, a stabilator and a small fin on the bottom of the tail to improve yaw control. The vertical stabilizer has a sweep angle of 60° and an area of 5,32 m² (on earlier version 3,8 m²) and a rudder. The stabilator has sweep angle of 57°, an area of 3,94 m² and a span of 2,6m.

Landing Gear
A tricycle type undercarriage with a nose gear. The main landing gear has tires 800 mm in diameter and 600 mm in width (till the MiG-21P 660x200). The wheels of the main landing gear retract in the fuselage after rotating 87°, the shock absorbers retract in the wing. The nose gear retracts forward in the fuselage under the radar. The wheel base is 4,71m, the track width is 2,69m.

Engines
[4]

Engine Thrust (kN)* Variant
R-11F-300 38,2/53,4 F, F-13, U
R-11F2-300 38,7/60,0 F-13 (refitted), PF, FL
R-11F2S-300 38,2/60,6 PF, PFS, PFM, R, S, M, US, UM
R-11F2SK-300 38,2/60,6 MF
R-13-300 39,9/63,7 M (refitted), MF, RF, SM, SMT, UM (refitted)
R-25-300 40,2/69,9 97,1kN with "extreme afterburner" bis

without/with afterburner

[edit] Operational history

[edit] Vietnam

MiG-21PFM, Polish Air Force, markings of 10th Fighter Regt.The MiG-21 initially achieved renown in the Vietnam War, during which it saw frequent action. It was one of the most advanced aircraft at the time; however, many North Vietnamese aces preferred flying the MiG-17, since the high wing loading on the MiG-21 made it less maneuverable than the MiG-17. Although the MiG-21 lacked the long-range radar, missiles, and heavy bombing payload of its contemporary multimission U.S. fighters, it proved a challenging adversary in the hands of experienced pilots especially when used in high speed hit and run attacks under GCI control. MiG-21 intercepts of F-105 strike groups became so effective in downing US aircraft or forcing them to jettison their bombloads by December 1966 that the USAF resolved to do something about it and launched Operation Bolo in January 1967 to draw the MiG-21s into an aerial engagement. By masquerading as a F-105 strike group, F-4 Phantoms led by Colonel Robin Olds lured the MiG-21s up through an overcast and claimed 7 of them shot down.

By the bombing halt in Operation Rolling Thunder in 1968, poor air-to-air combat loss-exchange ratios against smaller, more agile enemy MiGs during the early part of the Vietnam War eventually led the USAF to establish dissimilar air combat training "Aggressor" programs such as Navy "Top Gun", these two programs employed subsonic A-4 Skyhawk and F-5 Tiger II aircraft to mimic the performance of more maneuverable opponents like the MiG-17 and MiG-21.

A VPAF MiG-21MF flown by Phạm Tuân over Hanoi, North Vietnam on December 26, 1972 was apparently responsible for the only claimed combat kill of a U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortress in history. The B-52 had been circling above Hanoi during Operation Linebacker II. During that operation, the US claims that two MiG-21s were shot down by B-52Ds, which would make this the last air-to-air victories for American aerial gunners. Over the course of the Vietnam War, between April 26, 1965 and January 8, 1973, each side claimed favorable kill ratios.

[edit] Middle East
The MiG-21 was also used extensively in the Middle East conflicts of the 1960s and 1970s by the air forces of Egypt, Syria and Iraq against Israel. The MiG-21 first faced Israeli Mirage IIICs on April 7th, 1967 when six Syrian MiG-21's were shot dow
n by the Israeli Mirages. The MiG-21 would face F-4 Phantom IIs and A-4 Skyhawks later in the 1970s, but was later outclassed by the more modern F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon, which were acquired by Israel beginning in the 1980s. The MiG-21 was also used in the early stages of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December, 1979.

Interestingly, Egypt would eventually be shipped some American Sidewinder missiles, and these were fitted to their MiG-21s and successfully used in combat against Libyian MiG-23s during the brief 1977 war.[4]

In 1991, two MiG-21s were downed by F/A-18 Hornets from USS Saratoga during Desert Storm.[citation needed]

[edit] India

IAF MiG-21 BisonThe Indian Air Force has been one of the largest users of the MiG-21 since its initial employment of the plane in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. That war witnessed the first supersonic air combat in the subcontinent when an Indian MiG-21 shot down a PAF F-104 Starfighter.[5] The MiGs played an important role in air combat, ensuring an aerial superiority that ultimately resulted in Pakistan's defeat in just a fortnight. It was also used as late as 1999 in the Kargil War. The MiG-21's last known kill took place in 1999 during the Atlantique Incident when two MiG-21 aircraft of the Indian Air Force shot down a Breguet Atlantique reconnaissance aircraft of the Pakistani Navy, claiming that the Pakistani aircraft violated Indian airspace.[6] Upgraded MiG-21 'Bison' aircraft reportedly performed well against F-15 and F-16s of the USAF during Indo-US joint air exercises, surprising American pilots with its capabilities. They will remain in service until 2015.

[edit] Former Yugoslavia

The MiG-21 of the Yugoslav Air Force before the Yugoslav Civil Wars.During 1991-1995, Yugoslav People's Army and Serb forces used its MiG-21 Ms (about a hundred in total compromising 1/3 of the entire air force) during the Slovenian War, Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War and again during the 1999 Kosovo War and NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Except during the NATO intervention, the aircraft had no air opposition and was mainly used in a ground-attack role. Detailed records show at least six were shot down by AA defences in Croatia and Bosnia[7] and another 24 were destroyed by NATO,[7] most while on the ground. In 1993, Croatia purchased about 40 MiG-21s in violation of arms embargo[citation needed], but only 25 of these entered service, while the rest were used for spare parts.[citation needed] Croatia used them alongside the four that defected from the JNA[7] mainly for ground attack missions. Only 2 or 3 were lost during the entire war.[citation needed]

[edit] Africa
During the Cold War MiG-21s were supplied to many sub-Saharan African nations by the Soviets. Their most notable use in combat occurred during the Angolan Civil War in the hands of the People's Air and Air Defence Force of Angola. Cuban Air Force pilots also flew MiG-21s over Angola during the War. Both Angolan and Cuban MiG-21s often had encounters with and downed South African Air Force Mirages. In 2006, at least two MiG-21s were used to bomb the Somalian airbases loyal during Ethiopia's invasion of Somalia.[citation needed]

[edit] Variants
See also: Chengdu J-7

Mikoyan Ye-150, a MiG-21 derivative
MiG-21, Deutsches Museum, Munich
MiG-21MF, Polish Air Force, markings of 3rd Tactical Sqn.
MiG-21UM of FRY Air force.
MiG-21 SPS
MiG-21 2000

Ye-2 (NATO: "Faceplate")
Swept-wing prototype.
Ye-4 (I-500)
The first delta wing prototype of the MiG-21.
Ye-5 (NATO
"Fishbed")
Delta wing research prototype.
Ye-6
Three pre-production aircraft.
MiG-21
The first series of fighters.
MiG-21F (NATO: "Fishbed-B")
Single-seat day fighter aircraft. It was the first production aircraft, with 40 machines being made. The MiG-21F carried 2160 liters of fuel in six internal fuel tanks and was powered by a Tumansky R-11 turbojet engine with 5740kgf of thrust, and armed with two 30-mm NR-30 cannons 60 shells each, it was also capable of carrying two bombs ranging from 50 to 500 kg each. Prototype Ye-6T was redesignated MiG-21F.
Ye-50
Swept-wing research prototype.
Ye-66
Single-seat version, built for breaking the world speed record.
Ye-66A
Built to break the world altitude record.
Ye-66B
Ye-76
Ye-150
Interceptor prototype, essentially an enlarged MiG-21.
Ye-152 (NATO
"Flipper")
Bigger than a MiG-21, the Ye-152 'Flipper' was a high-performance aircraft, which achieved at least 3 world records.
MiG-21F-13 (NATO
"Fishbed-C")
Single-seat, short-range day fighter. The MiG-21F-13 was the first mass-production model. The MiG-21F-13 was powered by a Tumansky R-11 turbojet engine, it was armed with two Vympel K-13 (AA-2 'Atoll') air-to-air missiles, and one 30-mm NR-30 cannon with a 30 shell magazine. The Type 74 is the Indian Air Force designation. The MiG-21F-13 was made in China, and designated Chengdu J-7 or F-7 for export.
MiG-21FL
Export model of the MiG-21PF. Built under license in India as the Type 77.
MiG-21I (NATO
"Analog")
Testbed for the wing design of the Tu-144 (NATO: 'Charger') supersonic transport.
MiG-21SPS
Version built for East Germany.
MiG-21P (NATO
"Fishbed-D / Fishbed-E")
Single-seat, limited all-weather interceptor fighter. Armed with two air-to-air missiles only.
MiG-21PF (NATO
"Fishbed-D / Fishbed-E")
Single-seat, limited all-weather fighter, equipped with a RP21 Sapfir radar. The MiG-21PF is the second production model. Prototype Ye-7, Type 76 Indian Air Force designation.
MiG-21PF (SPS) (NATO
"Fishbed-E")
MiG-21PFM (NATO
"Fishbed-F")
Single-seat, limited all-weather fighter, with upgraded radar and a more powerful engine. Improved version of the MiG-21PFS.
MiG-21PFS (NATO
"Fishbed-F")
Single-seat, limited all-weather fighter, with upgraded radar and a more powerful engine.
MiG-21 (NATO
"Fishbed-G")
Experimental short take-off and landing aircraft.
MiG-21R (NATO
"Fishbed-H")
Single-seat tactical reconnaissance version of the MiG-21PFM.
MiG-21RF (NATO
"Fishbed-J")
Single-seat tactical reconnaissance version of the MiG-21MF.
MiG-21S (NATO
"Fishbed-J")
Single-seat interceptor fighter version, equipped with an RP-22 radar and an external gun pod. (Incorrectly identified by NATO as the MiG-21PFMA); E-8, Type 88 Indian Air Force designation.
MiG-21SM
Single-seat interceptor fighter version, powered by a Tumansky R-13-300 turbojet engine.
MiG-21PFV
High-altitude version (perekhvatchik forsirovannij visotnij, high-altitude boosted interceptor).
MiG-21M
Export version powered by a Tumansky R-13 turbojet engine. Built under license in India as the Type 96.
MiG-21MF
Export version powered by a Tumansky R-13 turbojet engine.
MiG-21MF (NATO
"Fishbed-J")
Single-seat multi-role fighter version, equipped with a RP-22 radar, powered by a Tumansky R-13-300 turbojet engine.
MiG-21MF-R
After the MiG-21R was withdrawn from service in the Bulgarian Air force in 1995, a group of engineers fitted the MiG-21MFs with the recon containers from the MiG-21Rs.
MiG-21SMT (NATO
"Fishbed-K")
Single-seat multi-role fighter version, powered by a Tumansky R-13 turbojet engine. Increased fuel and ECM capability. (E-9, block 94 and 96)
MiG-21bis (NATO
"Fishbed-L")
Single-seat multi-role fighter and ground-attack aircraft. The final production model. This version is powered by a Tumansky R-25-300 turbojet engine, and carries 2880 liters of fuel. The engines are capable of "extreme afterburner" for up to 3 min - increasing the thrust from 7100 kgf to 9900 kgf. It can accelerate from 600 km/h to 1100 km/h in 18 seconds (the MiG-29 does it in 11,6 sec). The climb rate is 225 m/s. In comparison the F-14 has a climb rate of 152 m/s, the MiG-17F 65 m/s, the F-16A 215 m/s.
MiG-21bis (NATO
"Fishbed-N")
Single-seat multi-role fighter and ground-attack aircraft.
MiG-21U (NATO
"Mongol-A")
Two-seat training version of the MiG-21F-13. Type 66 Indian Air Force designation.
MiG-21US (NATO
"Mongol-B")
Two-seat training version. Type 68 Indian Air Force designation.
MiG-21UT
Two-seat trainer.
MiG-21UM (NATO
"Mongol-B")
Two-seat training version of the MiG-21MF. Type 69 Indian Air Force designation.
JJ-7
Two-seat training version of the J-7.
FT-7
Export designation of the JJ-7.
MiG-21-93 Bison
Upgraded version for the Indian Air Force.
MiG-21 Lancer
Upgraded version for the Romanian Air Force done by Elbit of Israel and Aerostar of Romania. The Lancer-A version is optimized for ground attack being able to deliver precision guided munitions of eastern and western origin as well as R-60, R-73 and Python III air to air missiles. The Lancer-B version is the trainer version and the Lancer-C version is the air superiority version featuring 2 LCD MFDs, helmet mounted sight and the Elta EL/M-2032 Air combat radar.[5]
MiG-21MFN
Upgraded version for the Czech Air force (navigation and communication systems for compatibility with NATO).
MiG-21bisD/UMD
Upgraded in 2003 for the Croatian Air force with some elements of the Lancer standard. Modernized for a 10-year period but due to be withdrawn from service in 2011. Reported to have the ability to fire Swedish RBS-15F anti-ship missiles.
MiG-21-2000
Single-seat 21st century version for export buyers. Made by the IAF.

[edit] Foreign variants
China (PRC)
Chinese copies of the MiG-21 are designated Chengdu J-7 and F-7 (for export).

Czechoslovakia
Between 1962 and 1972 the MiG-21F-13 version was manufactured under license by Aero Vodochody, in Czechoslovakia. Aero Vodochody (then Středočeské strojírny, n.p.), built a total of 194 planes during this period, under the cover designation article Z-159. It followed the MiG-15 and MiG-19S built in Vodochody factory from the fifties to sixties. The sole locally-built version of the MiG-21F-13 differed externally from the Soviet-built examples by the solid dural sheet fairing behind the cockpit canopy, as opposed to the transparent one on the original Soviet MiGs. These machines were built for the Czechoslovak Air Force and also for export. The R-13-300 engines were imported from the Soviet Union.[citation needed]

India
The production of the MiG-21bis assembled from CKD parts and also reportedly built from scratch in India under license by Hindustan Aeronautics in Nasik lasted until 1984. Despite a series of crashes during the 1990s, which led to the aircraft acquiring the nickname "flying coffin," the Indian Air Force has decided to upgrade about 128 of the MiG-21bis in its inventory to the MiG-21 "Bison" standard. These will serve the Indian Air Force until 2015.

Israel
Israeli Aircraft Industries manufactures an upgrade package for the MiG-21 called the MiG-21-2000.[8]

Israel/Romania
A joint venture between Aerostar SA and Elbit has developed the "LanceR" upgrade package for the MiG-21, and 114 MiG-21s have been upgraded to the MiG-21 LanceR configuration for the Romanian Air Force.

Russia
Russia now offers an upgrade package to bring late-model MiG-21s up to the MiG-21-93 standard. This package provides an upgrade of the avionics suite that includes installation of the Kopyo pulse-doppler radar used by the MiG-29, which enables the aircraft to fire a greater range of modern weapons such as the beyond-visual-range Vympel R-77 air-to-air missile. The upgraded avionics also enhance the aircraft's survivability as well as its ability to engage enemy fighters. Other upgrade features include installation of a dual-screen HUD, helmet-mounted target designator, and advanced flight control systems.